Term used to distinguish literature of Irish origin written in English from literature in Irish. It often refers specifically to writing by Irish authors of English descent, starting as early as the 14th century, and to writers associated with the Protestant ASCENDANCY (18th–20th centuries). In the later 19th and early 20th centuries, such literature was condemned as ‘un‐Irish’ by leaders of the GAELIC REVIVAL, though W.B. YEATS and others argued that literature in both English and Irish contributed to the development of a national canon. English literature of Irish origin since the 1920s–30s is usually described as ‘Irish’.
Notable Anglo‐Irish authors include Jonathan SWIFT (1667–1745), George Berkeley (1685–1753), Edmund BURKE (1729–97), Oliver Goldsmith (1730–74), Maria Edgeworth (1767–1849), Augusta Gregory (1852–1932), Oscar Wilde (1854–1900), George Bernard SHAW (1856–1950), ‘Somerville and Ross’ (cousins Edith Somerville, 1858–1949, and Violet Martin, known as Martin Ross, 1862–1915), Yeats (1865–1939) and Elizabeth Bowen (1899–1973). See also IMMIGRATION TO IRELAND.
ANGLO‐IRISH SOCIETYsee NORMAN IRISH FAMILIES OR OLD ENGLISHANGLO‐IRISH TREATY
Signed 6 Dec. 1921 at 10 Downing St, London (residence of the British prime minister), by members of the British government (including David LLOYD GEORGE) and representatives of the Dáil Éireann or ‘Assembly of Ireland' (including Arthur GRIFFITH and Michael COLLINS).
The treaty provided for an effectively independent ‘Irish Free State', with informal DOMINION status, from which Northern Ireland (six counties) could (and did) opt out. It was ratified by the Dáil (7 Jan. 1922), but rejected by many republicans (including Éamon DE VALERA) because it confirmed the PARTITION OF IRELAND and retained allegiance to the British Crown. Divisions over the treaty escalated into the IRISH CIVIL WAR. See also IRISH FREE STATE, FOUNDING OF; BOUNDARY COMMISSION.
ANGLO‐JAPANESE ALLIANCEA treaty concluded on 30 Jan. 1902 at Westminster, London, by the British foreign secretary, the marquess of LANSDOWNE, and the Japanese representative Baron Tadasu Hayashi. The countries undertook to defend each other’s interests in E Asia against attack by any two powers. Initially aimed at curbing Russian expansionism, the alliance was strengthened in 1905, modified in 1911, and abandoned in 1921. See also JAPAN, BRITISH RELATIONS WITH.ANGLO‐PERSIAN OIL COMPANYA commercial company formed in 1909 with support of the British government following the discovery of oil in Persia (Iran). Great Britain acquired a controlling interest in 1914 to obtain a reliable fuel supply for its NAVY. The government supervised policy but avoided involvement in commercial administration. The company was renamed the Anglo‐Iranian Oil Company in 1935, and British Petroleum in 1954. From 1954 Iran’s oil was exploited by a consortium including British Petroleum. See also OIL INDUSTRY.ANGLO‐POLISH GUARANTEEAn undertaking announced by the British prime minister Neville CHAMBERLAIN on 31 March 1939, whereby Great Britain would resist any threat to the independence of Poland. Provoked by the German invasion of CZECHOSLOVAKIA, it was reinforced by an Anglo‐Polish alliance (25 Aug. 1939). Germany’s attack on Poland on 1 Sept. caused Britain to declare war (3 Sept.), but it was unable to defend Poland. See also POLAND, BRITISH RELATIONS WITH; WORLD WAR II, BRITISH INVOLVEMENT.ANGLO‐RUSSIAN CONVENTIONA treaty signed on 31 Aug. 1907 at Westminster, London, by government representatives to reduce friction between Great Britain and RUSSIA in Asia. The powers agreed spheres of influence in PERSIA (Iran), AFGHANISTAN and Tibet (under Chinese suzerainty). With the ANGLO‐FRENCH CONVENTION (1904), it furthered the development of an anti‐German bloc. See also RUSSIA AND USSR, ENGLISH AND BRITISH RELATIONS WITH.ANGLO‐SAXON CHRONICLEAn account of events mainly in Anglo‐Saxon England, arranged by year and written in Old English. It was originally compiled from various sources in the late 9th century, probably for King ALFRED. The earliest content is dubious. From 648 some entries may be contemporary. The Chronicle was continued in separate versions to the mid 11th century, and in one text until 1154.ANGLO‐SAXONS
Term used from 883 (alongside others) in writings connected with the court of ALFRED, king of WESSEX (e.g., Latin description of Alfred as Angulsaxonum rex, ‘king of the Anglo‐Saxons’). It recognized peoples combined under Alfred’s rule: SAXONS of Wessex (S England) and ANGLES of (western) MERCIA (W Midlands).
After Alfred’s death (899), the term was retained by his son EDWARD THE ELDER (ruled 899–924), but dropped by Edward’s successor ATHELSTAN from 927 when he expanded the territory under his rule (see ENGLISH). The term is used more broadly by historians to describe Germanic rulers and culturally Germanic inhabitants in southern Britain in the 5th–10th centuries (sometimes until the Norman invasion of 1066). See also GERMANIC IMMIGRATION, SOUTHERN BRITAIN; KINGSHIP, ANGLO‐SAXON.
ANGLO‐SCOTTISH BORDERsee BORDER, ANGLO‐SCOTTISHANGLO‐SPANISH WAR
A conflict of varying intensity, 1585–1604. It arose largely from Spain’s attempt to suppress a revolt (from 1566) in the Netherlands (modern Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg and part of NE France), which then belonged to the king of Spain, Philip II. England’s ruler, ELIZABETH I, feared that if (Catholic) Spain suppressed local liberties and established absolute rule, (Protestant) England’s security and commercial interests would be threatened. Spain sought to re‐establish Catholicism in England.
Relations deteriorated from Dec. 1568 when Genoese‐owned bullion was seized from Spanish ships taking shelter in English ports. Retaliation, ordered by Spain’s ambassador, included banning English imports into the Netherlands. In 1570–1, following the Pope’s excommunication of Elizabeth, Philip encouraged the RIDOLFI PLOT. Relations improved, and trade restarted, in 1573 (convention of Nijmegen). Elizabeth ostensibly acted as mediator in the Netherlands, despite pressure to intervene from English Protestants, while allowing English seamen to attack Spanish ships in the Americas.
In Aug. 1585, fearing a Spanish victory, Elizabeth agreed to assist (Dutch) rebels in the northern Netherlands. She dispatched military forces (from Aug. 1585), and a naval expedition attacked Spanish ports in the Americas (1585–6). The land force, as initially led by Robert, earl of LEICESTER (1585—6, 1587), had limited effect (although troops remained). Philip responded by planning an invasion of England. Delayed in 1587 by an English raid on Cádiz (SW Spain), it was thwarted in 1588 (see SPANISH ARMADA). The English attempted a revenge attack on Spanish‐ruled Lisbon (Portugal) in 1589, commanded by Francis DRAKE.
In the 1590s England mounted five major naval expeditions, including another attack on Cádiz (1596). Spain sent three expeditions, two of them to Ireland (see NINE YEARS WAR). English troops also supported Dutch land forces. Peace was concluded in 1604 by JAMES VI/I of England. See also SPAIN, ENGLISH AND BRITISH RELATIONS WITH.
ANGLO‐WELSH RELATIONS, 6TH–13TH CENTURIES
During this period, relations were usually antagonistic, with English rulers normally in the stronger position, but positions often varied according to shifting political conditions, especially in England.
In the 6th and 7th centuries Welsh and English kings sometimes made equal alliances (see CADWALLON AP CADFAN). But Mercian expansion in the 7th and 8th centuries confined Welsh rulers (see BORDER, ANGLO‐WELSH). The rise of WESSEX (9th and 10th centuries) and creation of England increased subjugation: in the 10th century Welsh kings were compelled to acknowledge the English king, at his court, as overlord (see ENGLAND, FORMATION OF). In the early 11th century Welsh kings, such as GRUFFUDD AP LLYWELYN, exploited political instability in England by raiding England.
The advent of NORMANS from the 1070s further disadvantaged Welsh rulers. With the creation of the MARCH OF WALES, they additionally