Alehouses were ordinary houses in which people bought and consumed ale (barley‐based alcohol), which was usually brewed on the premises, sometimes by women. In existence by the 11th century, they were widespread in towns and the countryside in the 14th century, their presence indicated by signs. Poorer people could augment their income by running an alehouse. In England in the late 16th and 17th centuries, as probably elsewhere, alehouses became more numerous in relation to the population. Beer replaced ale, sometimes provided by commercial ‘common brewers’. Authorities viewed alehouses as unruly and subversive places, and attempted to control them through LICENSING and other means. They were called ‘public houses’ (or ‘pubs’) from the 18th century, and from the 1820s onwards were often purpose‐built.
Taverns were rooms or buildings for the sale and consumption of wine. As it was more expensive than ale, taverns attracted a better‐off clientele, and occurred mainly in towns. Well established by the 13th century, by the 16th century they also provided meals. Taverns lost their distinctiveness from the 18th century.
Inns provided lodgings for travellers and usually also stabling for horses. Although of earlier origin, they were familiar in towns from the late 14th century, with most small towns having two or three inns and larger towns many more. Some were substantial businesses with numerous rooms, and innkeepers might be important local figures. Inns were used as meeting places, and in the late 17th–early 19th centuries some were social centres for GENTRY. During the same period, inns on main roads facilitated stage‐coaching. Inns were superseded from the 19th century by hotels, which concentrated on provision of accommodation.
ALEXANDER, WILLIAM
(b. c.1567 in Scotland; d. 12 Sept. 1640 at London, England, aged about 73). As tutor to Prince HENRY, eldest son of King JAMES VI of Scotland, Alexander moved to England with James on the UNION OF CROWNS (1603). He was knighted (1609) and, on Henry's death (1612), transferred to the household of Henry's younger brother Charles.
In 1621 Alexander was granted NOVA SCOTIA, where he attempted, unsuccessfully, to establish a Scottish colony. From 1626 until his death, he was CHARLES I's SECRETARY OF STATE for Scotland (based in England); he remained a staunch royalist. He was created Viscount (1630) and earl of Stirling (1633).
ALEXANDER I
(b. c.1077; d. 23 April 1124 at Stirling, C Scotland, aged about 48). King of Scots (Scotland) 1107–24.
The fifth son of MALCOLM III and MARGARET (both d. 1093), Alexander succeeded his brother EDGAR (8 Jan. 1107). By 1113, he ceded subordinate rule of S Scotland to his younger brother (see DAVID I). Alexander championed autonomy for the Scottish Church (against claims from archbishops of YORK, England): in 1109 his new bishop of ST ANDREWS, Turgot (d. 1115), probably withheld obedience when consecrated by the archbishop. Alexander also brought Augustinian canons from England to SCONE (c.1115). Succeeded by David I. See also MAC MALCOLM RULERS; RELIGIOUS ORDERS.
ALEXANDER II
(b. 24 Aug. 1198 at Haddington, Lothian, SE Scotland; d. 8 July 1249 at Kerrera, Argyll, W Scotland, aged 50). King of Scots (Scotland) 1214–49. Alexander succeeded WILLIAM I (father) aged 16 (4 Dec. 1214) and joined the rebellion against King JOHN of England, seeking to regain northern English counties (see DAVID I). In Aug. 1216, he led an army to Dover, SE England, where he did homage to Prince Louis of France for the counties, agreeing they would remain within England. But Alexander’s assertion of authority over the territories in spring 1217 (following John’s death in Oct. 1216) caused the papal legate in England to place Alexander and leading subjects under an interdict. On 1 Dec. he surrendered CARLISLE in return for absolution, and soon afterwards did homage to HENRY III for other English lands. In 1221 Alexander married Henry's sister Joan.
Alexander exerted authority within Scotland by suppressing rebellions in MORAY, NE Scotland (1228–30), and GALLOWAY, SW Scotland (1235). In 1237 he renounced claims to N England (treaty of YORK). Following another treaty with England (1244), Alexander sought to acquire the WESTERN ISLES. He died while expelling Ewen, son of Duncan, agent of King Haakon IV of Norway. Succeeded by ALEXANDER III. See also MAC MALCOLM RULERS; ENGLAND, FRENCH INVASION (1216–17).
ALEXANDER III
(b. 4 Sept. 1241 at Roxburgh, SE Scotland; d. 8 March 1286 near Kinghorn, Fife, E Scotland, aged 44). King of Scots (Scotland) 1249–86. Alexander succeeded ALEXANDER II (father) aged 7 (8 July 1249). In 1251 he married Margaret, daughter of King HENRY III of England. During his minority, until 1260, rival factions (particularly the COMYN family and Alan Durward) periodically replaced each other in royal offices. Henry III also intervened.
Alexander acquired suzerainty of the WESTERN ISLES and Isle of MAN from Norway in 1266 (see LARGS, BATTLE OF; PERTH, TREATY OF). Thereafter his reign was peaceful (including good relations with England), and probably highly successful. Alexander died after falling from his horse. His children were already dead; he was succeeded by his grand‐daughter, MARGARET, ‘THE MAID OF NORWAY'. See also MAC MALCOLM RULERS.
ALFRED
(b. 848 or 849 at Wantage, Wessex; d. 26 Oct. 899 in Wessex, aged about 50). The fourth son of King ÆTHELWULF to rule WESSEX (S England), Alfred succeeded his brother Æthelred as king in April 871. VIKINGS were attempting to overrun Wessex (one of only three remaining Anglo‐Saxon kingdoms). In 878 much of Wessex capitulated; Alfred fled into hiding at Athelney (Somerset). Soon afterwards, he defeated a Viking army at EDINGTON (Wiltshire) and made terms with their leader, Guthrum (treaty of Wedmore). He constructed BURHS (fortresses) around Wessex to increase its security. By 883, Alfred was overking of (western) MERCIA, and in 886 he captured LONDON and the Thames Valley. He successfully countered further Viking attacks (892–6).
Alfred recruited scholars from Francia, Mercia and Wales to help raise standards of LITERACY and Christian knowledge among the Wessex clergy and nobles (see ASSER). He himself translated several books from Latin into Old English, and commissioned the ANGLO‐SAXON CHRONICLE . He adopted the title ‘king of the Anglo‐Saxons'. The legend of Alfred, at Athelney, allowing cakes to burn while he pondered his future dates from the 10th century. See also KINGSHIP, ANGLO‐SAXON; ANGLO‐SAXONS.
ALIEN ACTLegislation passed by the English Parliament in Feb. 1705 in response to anti‐English Acts of the Scottish Parliament, especially the Act of SECURITY. It required Scotland to begin negotiations for union by 25 Dec. 1705 or accept the HANOVERIAN SUCCESSION. If ignored, punitive measures would follow (including the treatment of Scots coming to England as aliens). It stirred anti‐English feeling in Scotland (see WORCESTER AFFAIR) but succeeded in its purpose. See also UNION OF ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND.ALIEN PRIORIES, ENGLAND AND WALES
Religious houses, generally small (some very small, with two or three monks), which were founded mainly in the late 11th and 12th centuries following the NORMAN CONQUEST. Perhaps totalling about 100, they were controlled and often staffed from overseas monasteries, many in NORMANDY.
During conflict with France, the king seized the priories’ estates to obtain their revenues (1295–1303, 1337–60, 1369–99). Several larger houses obtained independence (so‐called ‘denization’), but many of the smaller ones were confiscated and suppressed by 1414. Their estates were used to endow new institutions such as colleges in OXFORD and CAMBRIDGE. See also MONASTICISM, MEDIEVAL ENGLAND/WALES; EDWARD I; HUNDRED YEARS WAR.
ALLECTUS(d. 296 in S Britain). Of unknown origin, Allectus was probably the chief finance minister of the usurper CARAUSIUS, whom he assassinated in 293, thereby replacing him as ruler of ROMAN BRITAIN. Allectus held power for three years (293–6), until he was defeated and killed by Asclepiodotus, praetorian prefect of Emperor Constantius I, at an unknown site in S Britain (perhaps in modern Hampshire).ALLENBY,