A portion of a church’s revenues, often ‘small tithes’ on livestock and minor produce, was usually reserved for the incumbent, who was styled ‘vicar’. (Incumbents who retained full revenues were styled ‘rector’.) The appropriator received ‘great tithes’ of grain and hay. After the DISSOLUTION OF RELIGIOUS HOUSES (1530s), most appropriated incomes were acquired by laymen, who were known as ‘lay rectors’ or impropriators. See also TITHE; CHURCH, MEDIEVAL ENGLAND.
APPROPRIATION OF CHURCHES, IRELANDMainly from the 13th century, revenues intended for the clergy of local churches, principally TITHES, were often transferred to monasteries, with a small proportion retained for local clergy (see MONASTICISM, MEDIEVAL IRELAND). An estimated 60% of livings were ‘appropriated’ (legally acquired), though proportions varied regionally with the highest in E Ireland. Following the DISSOLUTION OF RELIGIOUS HOUSES (16th century), monastic livings were acquired by secular lords, who were known as ‘impropriators’. Some revenues were restored to the Church of IRELAND in the early 17th century (see LAUDIANISM, IMPACT ON IRELAND). See also CHURCH, MEDIEVAL IRELAND.APPROPRIATION OF CHURCHES, SCOTLAND
In the 12th and 13th centuries the endowing of monasteries and cathedral clergy usually included the formal appropriation of rectories (clergy livings), whose revenues (mainly TEINDS) were diverted to the new legal owners. To support clergy, rectories were replaced by vicarages (lower stipends). Vicarages were also appropriated (replaced by small allowances). By c.1300 the revenues of half of Scotland's parishes had been appropriated; more were later appropriated for COLLEGIATE CHURCHES and university colleges (see UNIVERSITIES, SCOTLAND). By 1550, 86% of rectories and 56% of vicarages had been appropriated.
From the late 15th century appropriated incomes increasingly passed temporarily to laymen through the COMMENDATION OF ABBEYS. In 1587 many appropriated revenues were annexed to the Crown by King JAMES VI, who used them to form new secular lordships. See also CHURCH, MEDIEVAL SCOTLAND.
APPROPRIATION OF CHURCHES, WALESBetween c.1070 and 1400 Welsh monasteries appropriated the revenues of many parish churches, to which they appointed poorly paid vicars. At the DISSOLUTION OF RELIGIOUS HOUSES (1536–9), the revenues passed to the Crown which sold them (mainly 1539–58). Most purchasers were GENTRY who thereby controlled clerical appointments (until 1920), though the percentage of appropriated livings was much smaller than in England. See also CHURCH, MEDIEVAL WALES.ARBROATH, DECLARATION OFA letter dated at Arbroath (E Scotland) on 6 April 1320 from 39 Scottish nobles to Pope John XXII, who had put Scotland under an interdict because King ROBERT I had refused a truce with King EDWARD II of England. Famous since the 17th century, it powerfully argues Scotland's case for independence from England. See also SCOTTISH–ENGLISH RELATIONS 1290 TO 1357.ARCHITECTURE, BRITAIN
Among earlier structures are prehistoric stone monuments (e.g., STONEHENGE, c.2000 BC), BRONZE AGE and IRON AGE settlements, and sites from ROMAN BRITAIN (e.g., HADRIAN’S WALL). In the 7th–11th centuries the Anglo‐Saxons, influenced by Continental architecture, built small plain churches and larger abbeys (e.g., at WINCHESTER). Romanesque architecture, imported by the NORMANS in the late 11th century, brought a new scale and confidence to Church architecture (e.g., DURHAM Cathedral) and in CASTLES. Gothic architecture was introduced from France in the later 12th century: its three main phases in Britain (Early English, Decorated, Perpendicular) were employed in numerous churches, cathedrals and abbeys during the next 350 years (e.g., WESTMINSTER Abbey).
In the 16th century, the DISSOLUTION OF RELIGIOUS HOUSES and REFORMATION severely reduced Church patronage, preventing full assimilation of Italian Renaissance styles, although they influenced the design of grand houses. A true Renaissance architecture arrived in the early 17th century with the Palladianism of Inigo JONES. Baroque style developed after the GREAT FIRE OF LONDON (1666), when Christopher WREN was commissioned to rebuild the capital’s churches, including St Paul’s Cathedral. A restrained Neo‐classicism dominated the 18th century, with the Scottish architect Robert Adam (1728–92) creating distinctive town and country houses.
The restless 19th century was characterized by revivals, the most distinctive being Neo‐Gothic, seen in churches and public buildings (e.g., Houses of Parliament, Westminster). Notable at the end of the century were the Art Nouveau designs in Scotland of Charles Rennie Mackintosh (1868–1928).
During the 20th century, British architects responded to international influences. Post‐modern buildings by such architects as Richard Rogers (e.g., Lloyd’s building, London, completed 1986) and Lord Foster (e.g., ‘The Gherkin’, London, 2004) won international acclaim.
ARCHITECTURE, IRELAND
The earliest remains are remarkable NEOLITHIC tombs (e.g., NEWGRANGE, c.3000 BC) and IRON AGE fortifications (e.g., at TARA). From the 6th century Christian monks, at first adapting indigenous styles, built small beehive huts (as on Skellig Michael, Co. Kerry), and later simple oratories, churches, monasteries and (almost unique to Ireland) tall, free‐standing towers (e.g., at GLENDALOUGH).
The 12th century marked a turning point, the Cistercians notably building large monasteries (e.g., Jerpoint Abbey, Co. Kilkenny), and the Gothic style arriving in the wake of the Anglo‐Norman invasion of 1169–70.
In the 16th century the dissolution of monasteries, REFORMATION, and reassertion of English authority greatly reduced religious building. Houses built then and in the 17th century (often fortified) were based on English and Scottish models. In the more settled conditions of the late 17th and early 18th centuries, classical styles appeared (e.g., Beaulieu House, Drogheda, Co. Louth), and Palladianism was introduced from England (e.g., Castletown House, Co. Kildare, built for William CONOLLY). From the mid 18th century, Neo‐Classicism became dominant, resulting in distinctive Georgian areas in many towns and cities, notably DUBLIN where James Gandon (1743–1823) designed prominent buildings (e.g., Custom House).
During the 19th century there was a revival of styles, the most distinctive being Gothic Revival. It was used for both Protestant and Catholic churches, the latter including new cathedrals (e.g., ARMAGH Cathedral, 1854–73). Irish architecture in the 20th century reflected international developments (e.g., the modernist Dublin airport terminal, 1940).
ARCTIC, ENGLISH AND BRITISH EXPLORATION
In the 16th–18th centuries English merchants and others invested in seaborne expeditions into the Arctic area to find a trade route to E Asia, to circumvent Spanish and Portuguese routes. ‘Passages’ were sought mostly to the NW (around N America) and NE (around Eurasia).
Searches to the NW started in the early 16th century (see NORTH‐WEST PASSAGE). Achievements included discovery of the Hudson Strait (by Martin FROBISHER, 1578); exploration of the Davis Strait (by John Davis, 1586, 1587); exploration of the Hudson Strait and discovery of Hudson Bay and James Bay (by Henry HUDSON, 1610); discovery of Baffin Bay (by William Baffin and Robert Bylot, 1616).
Expeditions for the North‐East Passage occurred in 1553 (leading to formation of the MUSCOVY COMPANY), 1556, and 1580. Hudson attempted a transpolar sailing in 1607, and in 1608 sailed to the NE. His discovery of whales in the Greenland Sea (1607) stimulated whaling, which expanded knowledge of conditions.
In the late 18th century the British Admiralty, pursuing scientific ideas, looked for expansive ice‐free sea in the Arctic Ocean. Though this proved illusory, C.J. Phipps achieved a new ‘northing’ (northwards advance) in 1773, and James COOK discovered the Bering Strait between N America and Asia in 1778. In 1806 William Scoresby, with son William, achieved a new northing while whaling; Scoresby junior made important discoveries in geography, currents, etc., in 1813–17 and 1822. New searches for a North‐west Passage between 1818 and the 1840s were eventually successful.
Meanwhile in 1827, Edward Parry sought the North Pole using sledge‐boats. Attempts by various countries from the 1860s included a British expedition (under George Nares, 1875–6). The first undisputed land crossing to the Pole (an American expedition by snowmobile) occurred in 1968. British explorer Wally Herbert (1934–2007) was