From the late 1950s the government encouraged company mergers and international collaborations. The latter produced the Anglo‐French supersonic airliner Concorde (in service 1976–2003). From 1967, wings were contributed to European ‘Airbus’ aircraft.
In 1971, following collapse, engine manufacturer ROLLS‐ROYCE was nationalized, and in 1977 most other manufacturing was consolidated in the State‐owned British Aircraft Corporation (both privatized in 1980s). New military aircraft were collaborations, notably the Tornado (manufactured 1979–98) and Typhoon (from 1994).
The creation of the defence company BAE Systems in 1999 subsumed most aircraft production. Production of civil aircraft (small airliners) ended in 2013. In 2017, aircraft and related aerospace manufacturing employed 120,000 people. Rolls‐Royce remained a world leader in jet engines. See also INDUSTRY, NORTHERN IRELAND.
AIR FORCE, SOUTHERN IRELANDsee DEFENCE FORCES, SOUTHERN IRELANDAIR FORCE, UNITED KINGDOMsee ROYAL AIR FORCEAIRGIALLA (ORIEL OR URIEL)
A kingdom in central N Ireland (broadly between Loughs Erne and Neagh). It existed by the 5th century when it may have changed allegiance from the Ulaid (retreating eastwards) to the advancing Northern UÍ NÉILL (see ULSTER). Its name, meaning ‘Eastern hostages', was bestowed by the latter. Airgialla supposedly comprised nine dynasties, one holding a high‐kingship. During the 7th and 8th centuries lands were lost to the Cenél nEógain branch of the Northern Uí Néill (modern Co. Tyrone).
By the 11th century the Ua Cerbaill dynasty was dominant (English, O'Carroll). Donnchad Ua Cerbaill (d. 1168) added lands to the SE (modern Co. Louth) by 1142. After his son Murchad's death (1189), Prince JOHN of England granted lands to the Anglo‐Normans Bertram de Verdon and Gilbert Pipard (1189 or 1190). Settlement by their retainers caused Ua Cerbaill authority to collapse.
From the early 13th century, the Mac Mathgamna (MacMahon) dynasty dominated the reduced kingdom (modern Co. Monaghan). In 1590, Hugh Roe MacMahon was executed for treason by the English and his lordship was divided (1591). See also NIALL NOÍGIALLACH; ARMAGH.
AIR TRANSPORT, GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN IRELAND
Aeroplanes flew in Britain from 1908, and were soon used for military purposes (see ROYAL AIR FORCE). State regulation of civil aviation, and scheduled services (initially to Paris, France), began in 1919, the latter operated by British and overseas companies. The earliest international airports were near London at Hounslow Heath (1919–20) and Croydon (1920–39). From 1924, the main British airline was Imperial Airways (created by a merger), which pioneered routes across the BRITISH EMPIRE. In the 1930s several companies developed domestic routes (e.g., to MANCHESTER, BELFAST, GLASGOW); a merger created British Airways (1935), which served domestic and Continental European destinations. Imperial and BA merged in 1940, under State ownership, as the British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC). Pan American Airways operated scheduled trans‐Atlantic flights in 1939. Commercial flying was restricted during WORLD WAR II (1939–45).
From 1946, Heathrow London (created for military use) was the primary civil airport (busiest in Europe by 1955). Gatwick was expanded from 1958 as London’s second airport. The designation of Stansted in 1969 as the third reflected the growth of flying as a mass activity (e.g., for holidays). London City Airport, near central London, opened in 1987 for smaller aircraft; Luton Airport was renamed ‘London Luton’ in 1990. Regional airports were also expanded. By the early 21st century there were 15 major airports.
In 1947, several companies were absorbed by State‐owned British European Airways (BEA, formed 1946), establishing a State ‘duopoly’ of British‐based passenger air transport. BOAC introduced jet airliners (Comet) in 1952. From 1960, competition was allowed from independent airlines (e.g., British United Airways). BOAC and BEA merged in 1974 as British Airways (privatized 1987). Further liberalization from the 1980s enabled ‘low‐cost’ airlines to flourish from 1995. In 2015, airports handled about 260 million passengers.
AIR TRANSPORT, SOUTHERN IRELAND After the first aeroplane flight in Ireland, in 1910 (by Harry Ferguson of BELFAST), recreational flying developed. Military airfields and seaplane bases were opened in 1917–18 (during WORLD WAR I), notably Baldonnel Aerodrome near Dublin which became southern Ireland’s main military airfield (renamed Casement Aerodrome in 1965).The IRISH FREE STATE founded a military Air Service in 1922 (see DEFENCE FORCES, SOUTHERN IRELAND), but eschewed civil aviation until 1935 when it agreed to provide facilities for trans‐Atlantic flights by the W coast. The Foynes flying boat terminal by the Shannon estuary serviced flights 1939–45, and was superseded by Shannon Airport, at which flights from the USA terminated under a 1945 agreement with the USA. Meanwhile, a State airline, Aer Lingus, was started (1936), operating from Baldonnel to Great Britain; Aer Rianta was created as a civil aviation and ownership authority (1937); and Dublin Airport was opened (1940).
Further expansion included flights to Continental Europe (from late 1940s), Aer Lingus services to the USA (1958), and the opening of CORK Airport (1961). Smaller regional airports were created in the later 20th century, including Knock International (Co. Mayo) for visitors to Knock Shrine (1985). The requirement for flights from the USA to use Shannon Airport was modified in 1994 and ended in 2008. New Irish airlines included Ryanair (1985), a ‘low‐cost carrier’ which became one of Ireland’s largest companies, by 2015 operating over 350 aircraft. In 2015, the Republic’s airports handled almost 30 million passengers, with Dublin accounting for 81% of flights.
AIX‐LA‐CHAPELLE, TREATY OFPeace treaty signed on 7 Oct. 1748 at the free imperial city of Aix‐la‐Chapelle (German, Aachen), ending the War of the AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION. It largely restored wartime conquests to their pre‐war rulers. It also renewed the trading contract (Spanish asiento) granted to Great Britain by Spain in 1713, and reconfirmed recognition of the HANOVERIAN SUCCESSION (see UTRECHT, PEACE OF). Britain subsequently surrendered the asiento in return for other concessions (treaty of Madrid, 24 Sept. 1750). See also ROBINSON, THOMAS.ALABAMA AFFAIRA dispute between Great Britain and the USA. In 1862, during the AMERICAN CIVIL WAR, the British government failed to impound a vessel built at Birkenhead (NW England) for use as a cruiser by the breakaway American Confederacy. As the Alabama, it inflicted considerable damage on US Federal shipping. The USA demanded compensation and, after protracted negotiations, Britain agreed in 1872 to pay $15.5 million for damages caused by the Alabama and ten other British‐built ships.ALBANY, 2ND DUKE OFsee STEWART, MURDOCHALBANY, 3RD DUKE OFsee STEWART, ALEXANDERALBANY, 4TH DUKE ofsee STEWART, JOHNALBANY, ROBERT DUKE OFsee STEWART, ROBERTALBERT OF SAXE‐COBURG(b. 26 Aug. 1819 at Schloss Rosenau, Saxe‐Coburg‐Saalfeld, Germany; d. 14 Dec. 1861 at Windsor, Berkshire, England, aged 42). In 1840 Albert, a younger son of Duke Ernst I of Saxe‐Coburg‐Gotha, married his first cousin VICTORIA, queen of Great Britain and Ireland. Intensely serious and obviously foreign, he was never widely popular, but his intelligence gradually won the respect of senior politicians. Under his influence, Victoria became an impartial (though still active) constitutional monarch, and respectable domesticity characterized the royal family. Eager to advance art, science and technology, Albert promoted the GREAT EXHIBITION (1851). He was given the title of ‘prince consort’ in 1857. He died of typhoid. See also KINGSHIP AND MONARCHY, ENGLAND AND GREAT BRITAIN FROM 1680S.ALCHEMYA mixture of pseudo‐scientific and philosophical thought which sought the ‘philosopher’s stone’, a substance that would turn base metals (e.g., lead, copper) into gold or silver. Alchemy flourished in England during the 14th–17th centuries and is recorded in Scotland in the early 16th century. It declined after the SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION of the 17th century. See also DEE, JOHN; NEWTON, ISAAC.ALCUIN(b. c.740 in Northumbria; d. 19 May 804 at Tours, Francia, aged about 64). Master of the cathedral school at York, Northumbria (NE England), Alcuin was invited by Charlemagne, king of the Franks, to advise on educational and Church matters (781). He lived in Francia from 786 (returned to Northumbria 790–3),