ANGUS, DOUGLAS EARLS OFA Scottish noble family, known as the ‘Red Douglases'; flourished 1389–1761. They were descendants of George Douglas (c.1378–1402 or 1403), illegitimate son of William, (1st) earl of Douglas, and Margaret Stewart, countess of Mar and heiress to the Angus earldom. In 1389 Margaret Stewart resigned the earldom (in E Scotland) to George Douglas. The ‘Red Douglases' became the senior Douglas family in 1455 (see DOUGLAS, EARLS OF). See also DOUGLAS, ARCHIBALD (c.1489–1557).ANNALES CAMBRIAE(Latin, meaning ‘Annals of Wales'). Latin annals recording events in Welsh history to the 13th century; probably started at ST DAVIDS in the 8th century. Three versions survive: two from St Davids (from c.955, 1288) and one from Neath (c.1286). See also BRUT Y TYWYSOGION .ANNE
(b. 6 Feb. 1665 at Westminster, Middlesex, England; d. 1 Aug. 1714 at Westminster, aged 49). The second daughter of James, duke of York (JAMES VII/II from 1685), Anne was raised as a Protestant. She married in 1683. She supported the accession in 1689 of WILLIAM III and MARY II (her elder sister), following James’s flight (see GLORIOUS REVOLUTION), and accepted succession arrangements made after her heir’s death in 1700 (see SETTLEMENT, ACT OF).
Anne succeeded William on 8 March 1702, becoming queen of England, Ireland and Scotland. Her reign was dominated by the War of the SPANISH SUCCESSION, struggles between WHIGS and TORIES, and UNION OF ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND (1707). Until 1710 Anne was guided by Lord GODOLPHIN.
Anne’s attachment to the Church of ENGLAND made her sympathetic to Tories. But their objections to the war led to reliance on Whig ministers from 1704. Her resentment of this contributed to estrangement from her confidante Sarah CHURCHILL (duchess of Marlborough), and appointment of Tory ministers including Robert HARLEY (both 1710). The Army commander, the duke of MARLBOROUGH, was dismissed in 1711, and peace was negotiated.
Anne dismissed Harley in July 1714. Her appointment of the duke of SHREWSBURY as treasurer facilitated the succession of GEORGE I. See also CABINET; OCCASIONAL CONFORMITY; UTRECHT, PEACE OF; HANOVERIAN SUCCESSION.
ANNE OF CLEVES(b. 22 Sept. 1515 in duchy of Cleves, Germany; d. 16 July 1557 at Chelsea, Middlesex, England, aged 41). The sister of William, duke of Julier‐Cleves, Anne became the fourth wife of King HENRY VIII of England (married 6 Jan. 1540). The marriage was negotiated by Thomas CROMWELL to provide an alliance with an important German state. Henry found Anne unattractive and the marriage was unconsummated. Cromwell subsequently fell from office. The marriage was declared annulled on 9 July 1540. Anne remained in England. See also HENRY VIII, WIVES OF.ANNEXING ACTAn Act of the British Parliament, passed in 1752, which annexed to the Crown 13 estates forfeited by Jacobites; one of the punitive measures taken after the JACOBITE REBELLION of 1745. Income was assigned to a Board of Annexed Estates, which was established in 1755 and consisted of 28 government appointees (mostly Scotsmen). It funded education and promoted Protestantism in the HIGHLANDS. The estates were restored to their owners, and the Board disbanded, in 1784. See also SOCIETY IN SCOTLAND FOR PROPAGATING CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE.ANSELM
(b. 1033 at Aosta, Italy; d. 21 April 1109 at Canterbury, Kent, England, aged 76). Anselm became a pupil of LANFRANC at Bec monastery, NORMANDY (1059), then a monk (1060), prior (1063) and abbot (1078). In 1093 he was appointed archbishop of CANTERBURY in England by King WILLIAM II.
Relations with William were difficult. Eventually, when William forbad an appeal to the Pope, Anselm went into exile (1097). He was recalled (1100) by Henry I. But Anselm opposed royal investiture of bishops and returned to exile (1103–6). He and Henry agreed a compromise (1106, confirmed 1107; see HENRY I). Anselm wrote influential theological works, including the Proslogion which propounds an all‐inclusive single proof for the existence of God. He was canonized in 1494.
ANTARCTIC, BRITISH INVOLVEMENT
From the 1760s, the British asserted a presence in the Pacific Ocean and searched for a long‐suspected southern continent. Following expeditions commanded by John Byron (1764–6), Samuel Wallis (1766–8) and James COOK (1768–71), the second expedition of Cook (1772–5) included three ice‐edge cruises (without sighting land) and discovery of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands.
In 1819 British commander William Smith made the first sighting of land S of 60° latitude (Feb.) and the first landing (Oct.), thereby discovering the South Shetland Islands. In Jan. 1820, while surveying, Smith and Edward Bransfield (of the Royal Navy) saw the Antarctic mainland (Antarctic Peninsula), just after a Russian expedition. A US crew probably made the first landing (1821). British sealer George Powell and an American discovered the South Orkney Islands (also 1821), and an expedition by whaler John Biscoe (1830–2) circumnavigated Antarctica. Sporadic later expeditions included those of James Ross (1839–43) and George Nares (1872–4).
More expeditions followed from the 1890s. The Southern Cross Expedition of Norwegian‐British explorer C.E. Borchgrevink (1898–1900) overwintered on the mainland. The National Antarctic Expedition under Robert Scott (1901–4) included inland journeys. The Scottish expedition of W.S. Bruce (1902–4) studied the Weddell Sea. Ernest Shackleton’s expedition (1907–9) included a journey to within 97 mi (155 km) of the South Pole. During another expedition (1910–12), Scott reached the Pole (17 Jan. 1912), but had been narrowly beaten by Norwegian Roald Amundsen. (Scott’s polar party died during the return journey.) Shackleton’s 1914–17 expedition failed. Scientific expeditions occurred in the 1920s–30s, and permanent stations were established from 1943. Vivian Fuchs made the first Antarctic crossing in 1957–8.
British exploration included claims to sovereignty and establishment of a British presence: see ANTARCTIC AND SOUTH ATLANTIC, BRITISH TERRITORIES.
ANTARCTIC AND SOUTH ATLANTIC, BRITISH TERRITORIES
Islands in the southern Atlantic Ocean were claimed for Great Britain in the mid 18th century: the FALKLAND ISLANDS in 1765 by Captain John Byron of the Royal Navy; South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands in 1775 by Captain James COOK. Lands in the Southern Ocean were claimed in the early 19th century: the South Shetland Islands in 1819 by ship commander William Smith; the South Orkney Islands in 1821 by sealer and co‐discoverer George Powell. Graham’s Land (part of the Antarctic Peninsula) was claimed by ship commander John Biscoe in 1832.
The Falklands were constituted as a CROWN COLONY in 1841. Following inquiry from Norway, sovereignty over the other territories was reasserted in 1908, to facilitate regulation and taxation of whaling, and part of Antarctica also claimed. The lands became a crown colony known as the Falklands Islands Dependencies, administered from the Falklands. (The claim was modified in 1917, including extension of the Antarctica sector to the South Pole.) From the 1920s other countries asserted claims in Antarctica, some of which challenged the British claim. In 1959, the UK was a signatory to the Antarctic Treaty whereby claims were frozen and Antarctica reserved for peaceful uses (effective from 1961).
In 1962, the South Orkney Islands, South Shetland Islands and British Antarctica were separated as a colony called British Antarctic Territory. The Falklands, Falklands Dependencies (South Georgia, South Sandwich Islands) and British Antarctic Territory colonies were retitled ‘British dependent territories’ in 1983. The Falklands Dependencies became a separate dependent territory, with a constitution, in 1985 (called South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands). ‘British dependent territories’ were renamed ‘British overseas territories’ in 2002.
ANTI‐CATHOLICISM, BRITAIN
Hostility to CATHOLICS grew from the late 16th century following the REFORMATION, grounded