A Dictionary of British and Irish History. Группа авторов

      BUTLER EDUCATION ACTPopular name for the Education Act of 1944, promoted by R.A. BUTLER, president of the Board of Education, and passed by the UK Parliament for England and Wales. It divided public education into primary, secondary and further, and required education authorities to plan and provide separate secondary schools for children of all abilities. The leaving age would be raised to 15 and later 16. Other provisions included school meals and free milk. Most authorities instituted ‘multilateral’ secondary education based on selection (usually at age 11) for GRAMMAR, ‘modern’ and sometimes technical schools (as recommended by the ‘Spens Report’ of 1939) although a few pursued COMPREHENSIVE EDUCATION. See also EDUCATION, ENGLAND/WALES.BUTLER FAMILY, IRELAND

      An Anglo‐Irish noble family. Its members were descended from Theobald Walter (d. 1205), who went to Ireland with Prince JOHN (1185), was given lands, and was appointed chief butler (by 1192). The post became hereditary and the family adopted the surname Butler.

      In 1328 James, 7th butler (c.1305–38), was created earl of Ormond. He and his successors were dominant in E MUNSTER (S Ireland), and were rivalled in Ireland until the 16th century by only the ‘Geraldine' earls of KILDARE and DESMOND (see BUTLER–GERALDINE FEUD). James Butler (1390–1452, 4th earl from 1405) feuded with the Talbot family (see TALBOT–ORMOND FEUD). The 5th, 6th and 7th earls lived mainly in England (1450s–1515). Butler influence in Ireland was revived by the 7th earl's cousin Piers Butler (c.1467–1539, 8th earl from 1515), who served as chief governor (lord deputy) 1522–4.

      James Butler (1610–88) dominated Ireland in the 1640s and 1670s–80s and was created duke of Ormond in 1661 (see ORMOND, 12TH EARL OF). His grandson and successor James Butler (1665–1745) supported King WILLIAM III and Queen ANNE, but became a Jacobite in 1715, after George I's accession, and fled abroad (Irish estates forfeited 1716). In 1721 his brother Charles Butler (1671–1758) was permitted to buy the estates and succeed as 3rd duke. He died without direct heir. The earldom of Ormond descended in another line into the 21st century. See also KILKENNY.

      BUTLER–GERALDINE FEUDIn Ireland, feuding between the BUTLER FAMILY (led by the earls of Ormond) and the GERALDINES (led by the earls of Kildare and Desmond) which frequently disrupted Anglo‐Irish political life between the 1450s and 1560s. During the YORKIST–LANCASTRIAN CONFLICT in England (1450–90s), Butlers sympathized or allied with Lancastrians, Geraldines with Yorkists. In 1522–4 Geraldines undermined the 8th earl of Ormond's governorship. In the 1560s inter‐party rivalry contributed to the First DESMOND REBELLION. See also KILDARE ASCENDANCY.BUTSKELLISMTerm denoting the consensus between leading members of the British LABOUR and CONSERVATIVE PARTIES in the 1950s in accepting the mixed economy (nationalized and private industry), WELFARE STATE and Keynesian economics (see KEYNES, J.M.). Formed from the names of ‘Rab’ BUTLER (Conservative) and Hugh GAITSKELL (Labour), the word first appeared in The Economist on 13 Feb. 1954.BUTT, ISAAC

      (b. 6 Sept. 1813 at Glenfin, Co. Donegal, Ireland; d. 5 May 1879 near Dundrum, Co. Dublin, Ireland, aged 65). A (Protestant) economist and lawyer, Butt long supported the UNION OF IRELAND AND GREAT BRITAIN but was shocked by the British government's weak response to the GREAT FAMINE (1845–9). From 1852 to 1865, as a member of the UK Parliament (Conservative, then Liberal), he attempted unavailingly to reform landholding in Ireland. He also defended participants in the RISING OF 1848 and INSURRECTION OF 1867.

      These experiences led Butt to promote ‘Home Rule' (a separate Irish Parliament); in 1870 he founded the federalist HOME GOVERNMENT ASSOCIATION (superseded by the HOME RULE LEAGUE, 1873). He was re‐elected to Parliament in 1871, but from 1875 was overshadowed by C.S. PARNELL. See also HOME RULE MOVEMENT, IRELAND.

       BYNG, JOHN

(b. Oct. 1704 at Southill, Bedfordshire, England; d. 14 March 1757 at Portsmouth, Hampshire, England, aged 52). A sailor from 1718, Byng held numerous British naval commands. In 1756, early in the SEVEN YEARS WAR, he was sent as commander with a fleet to defend MINORCA (W Mediterranean). After discovering that French troops had landed, and encountering a French fleet, he withdrew to GIBRALTAR. The British garrison on Minorca surrendered (June).

      On returning to England Byng was arrested (July) and convicted of negligence (Jan. 1757), though recommended for clemency. King GEORGE II insisted on his execution (by firing squad). His role in the loss of Minorca was controversial. Many viewed him as a scapegoat for incompetence by the ministry of the duke of NEWCASTLE. The French writer Voltaire, who knew Byng, claimed his execution was simple brutality: an admiral was executed ‘to encourage the others’ (Candide, 1759).

      BYRD, WILLIAM(b. 1542 or 1543, probably in London, England; d. 4 July 1623 at Stondon Massey, Essex, England, aged about 80). Though a Catholic, Byrd was a gentleman (lay singer) of the Chapel Royal (1572 until death) under the Protestant rulers ELIZABETH I and JAMES VI/I. From 1577 he lived outside London, in Middlesex, then in Essex (from 1590s). He composed music for the Church of ENGLAND as well as Catholic Mass settings and motets for RECUSANTS and secular music. He is regarded as the greatest English composer of his time. See also TALLIS, THOMAS.