During WORLD WAR II (1939–45) cow herds and arable expanded, while sheep numbers fell. Afterwards, previous trends were resumed, with the British government providing new financial support from 1947. Beef production and pig numbers expanded (latter peaking in 1965). In 1960, pig and poultry production were half of output by value, declining to 21% by 1985. The number of labourers declined drastically as tasks (e.g., milking) were mechanized. Dairy production expanded from the 1960s. By 1985, arable, now more productive, occupied only 9% of land. Holdings remained small (average of 48 acres, 19 ha, in 1980), with many worked part‐time or leased out.
From 1973, conditions were determined by the COMMON AGRICULTURAL POLICY of the European Economic Community. In 2015, livestock accounted for 80% of output by value. Agriculture engaged 3.2% of the workforce. See also AGRICULTURE, STATE INVOLVEMENT, GREAT BRITAIN/NORTHERN IRELAND; RURAL SETTLEMENT AND SOCIETY, IRELAND.
AGRICULTURE, SCOTLAND BEFORE 18TH CENTURY
From the 13th century onwards, arable farming was organized on an infield–outfield system, a variant of open‐field agriculture (see AGRICULTURE, ENGLAND BEFORE MID 18TH CENTURY). The distinction between infield and outfield developed from earlier, simpler ‘infield‐only' systems. Open‐field farming may have been introduced with FEUDALISM (from the 12th century), replacing earlier systems based on small enclosed fields.
The infield, on the best soils, was relatively small (at most, a third of total area), but received most manure and was intensively cropped with bere (a form of barley), oats and sometimes wheat, rye and legumes. The more extensive outfields, producing only oats, received little manure and were regularly rested as fallow to restore fertility. Crop yields were low; a return of three times the seed sown was considered acceptable, though infields sometimes produced more. Arable land was frequently held in shares, with holdings fragmented into intermixed parcels under the RUNRIG system. An eight‐oxen team, ploughing land as ridge and furrow, was normal. In the W Highlands, population growth from the late 16th century encouraged a shift from plough to intensive spade cultivation in ‘lazy beds' (heavily manured hill‐side strips).
All communities produced some grain for subsistence, and most farms kept cattle and sheep. There was an emphasis on arable in the eastern Lowlands, while the eastern Borders specialized in sheep farming from the 12th century. Galloway (SW Scotland) concentrated on cattle rearing. In the medieval Lowlands, and in the Highlands into the late 18th century, cattle were driven to summer pastures, or shielings, among hills and mountains. During the 17th century, arable farming expanded with population growth and, around the major towns, became more intensive with liming and improved rotations. Enclosure of land on estate policies (parks) and home farms began in the later 17th century. See also TENURES, SCOTLAND; RURAL SETTLEMENT AND SOCIETY, SCOTLAND.
AGRICULTURE, SCOTLAND FROM 18TH CENTURY
Free trade with England, introduced by the UNION OF ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND (1707), stimulated sheep and cattle farming in the Borders. Tenants were removed, particularly in the 1720s, to provide pastures (see LEVELLERS' REVOLT). In the eastern Lowlands multiple tenancies were gradually replaced by single tenancies.
Between the 1760s and 1820s, growing towns and industrial regions stimulated the transformation (or ‘improvement') of Lowland agriculture. Landowners terminated leases and enclosed open fields (both in‐ and outfields), creating compact large farms (often over 100 acres, 40 ha) with single tenants. Commonties (common lands) were made private and enclosed. Farmers adopted techniques for improving fertility (intensive liming; increased stocking of sheep and cattle, to provide dung, fed on sown grass and turnips). Crop yields doubled or tripled. Little mechanization occurred, though the light two‐horse plough became common. In the HIGHLANDS large sheep farms were created (1770s–1840s) by removal of tenants (see CLEARANCES; CROFTING). Better roads and CANALS improved access to markets.
Prosperity continued until the 1870s. From the 1820s, fat cattle were exported to London by steamship (from the 1850s by RAILWAYS). The NE became famous for beef. Arable yields were raised in mid century by HIGH FARMING techniques. Scotland suffered from the AGRICULTURAL DEPRESSION of the 1880s–90s, though less than most of the UK.
In the 20th century, the World Wars (1914–18, 1939–45) created temporary demand as imports were cut, but prices fell afterwards. From the 1950s, arable farming became totally mechanized (tractors, harvesters), and from 1973, agriculture was subject to the COMMON AGRICULTURAL POLICY of the European Economic Community. Having employed 150,000 people in 1881, by 2000 agriculture required only 25,000 workers. See also TENURES, SCOTLAND; RURAL SETTLEMENT AND SOCIETY, SCOTLAND.
AGRICULTURE, SOUTHERN IRELAND
Agriculture predominated in the economy of the IRISH FREE STATE (founded 1922), accounting in 1926 for 53% of the total workforce (648,000 people) and 34% of national income. Livestock (especially cattle) and livestock products (e.g., butter) were the main concerns. In the 1920s, prices declined though exports (mainly to Great Britain) rose 12% in value 1925–30.
From 1932, the FIANNA FÁIL government of Éamon DE VALERA sought to increase self‐sufficiency by encouraging arable farming with price support (1932). But expansion was modest, and de Valera’s ECONOMIC WAR with Britain greatly reduced agricultural exports and incomes (e.g., cattle exports fell by two‐thirds in value 1931–4).
Increased overseas demand in WORLD WAR II (1939–45) and afterwards improved conditions, but in the 1950s–60s prices declined and farmers depended considerably on State aid. The difficult situation produced a ‘flight from the land’. By 1971, agriculture employed 25% of the workforce, less than now occupied in industry.
The Republic of Ireland’s entry into the European Economic Community (1973) brought agriculture under its COMMON AGRICULTURAL POLICY (CAP), which raised incomes. Cattle remained pre‐eminent, with beef cattle becoming more important. The CAP’s terms favoured capital‐intensive large farms, which increased production and productivity. Dairy farms fell from 86,000 in 1984 to 25,000 in 2005. By 2011, only 4.7% of the workforce remained in agriculture, though food processing was an important industry. See also AGRICULTURE, STATE INVOLVEMENT, SOUTHERN IRELAND; RURAL SETTLEMENT AND SOCIETY, IRELAND.
AGRICULTURE, STATE INVOLVEMENT, GREAT BRITAIN
From the 1660s to 1840s the English (later British) government encouraged stability of arable agriculture through the CORN LAWS. Following their abolition (1846), LAISSEZ-FAIRE prevailed.
The need for increased home food production during WORLD WAR I (1914–18) provoked intervention. From 1917, some permanent pasture was ploughed up, under local direction, to expand cereal production (mostly in 1918). The 1917 Corn Production Act (for UK) introduced minimum prices for wheat and oats, and minimum wages for labourers. They were continued by the 1920 Agriculture Act (for Great Britain), but it was repealed in 1921 because of farmers’ opposition and cost. Wage regulation was reinstituted (1924) in England and Wales (in Scotland, 1937). Minor support measures were introduced (e.g., sugar beet subsidy, 1925). De‐rating of land and agricultural buildings (in stages, 1923–9) reduced costs.
In the 1930s, in response to difficult economic conditions, the government sought to sustain agriculture and increase efficiency. The 1931 Agricultural Marketing Act authorized marketing boards in Britain, and the 1932 Wheat Act (for UK) guaranteed minimum prices for wheat. The 1937 Agriculture Act began war preparations, including subsidies to expand wheat acreage and for additional crops. The 1939 Agricultural Development Act subsidized ploughing of grassland for cereal production. Support was extended in 1944 (during WORLD WAR II), and the post‐war 1947 Agriculture