Figure 5. BG McClure, COL Volckmann, and COL Bank.
In 1980, less than a year after the debacle of Desert One in Iran, Army Chief of Staff GEN Edward Meyer directed the enhancement of the ARSOF’s capabilities. Two years later, the 1st Special Operations Command (SOCOM) was activated to coordinate the training, equipping, and organizing of the Army’s SFGs, Ranger battalions, Civil Affairs Battalion (CAB), and Psychological Operations Group (POG). This was the beginning of a major Army effort to broaden special operations capabilities—an effort that resulted in a third Ranger battalion and a regimental headquarters, the 3rd SFG, the 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (SOAR), and the 528th Special Operations Support and 112th Special Operations Signal Battalions. In 1989, the U.S. Army consolidated 1st SOCOM, the U.S. Army John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School (SWCS), and the Reserve Special Operations Command under a major command—the U.S. Army Special Operations Command (USASOC). USASOC became the Army component of the U.S. Special Operations Command (USSOCOM) that was activated in 1987. As one would expect, ARSOF trains and conducts operations worldwide year-round, having done so since its inception.
Thus, USASOC forces were conducting scheduled training exercises in the United States and overseas when America came under attack on 9/11. Small elements from the Special Operations Support Command (SOSCOM) headquarters and the signal and support battalions were in the Middle East for Exercise EARLY VICTOR, supporting the 5th SFG and preparing for Exercise FOAL EAGLE in Korea. The 5th SFG was also preparing for Exercise DESERT SPRING in the Persian Gulf region. One battalion of the 3rd SFG was training in Africa. Ranger companies were conducting small-unit training, including standard parachute assaults. Unit staff officers were planning for the cycle of spring 2002 exercises. The commander of the 9th PSYOP Battalion was at the Joint Readiness Training Center (JRTC) in Arkansas, and other PSYOP soldiers were preparing to deploy to the Middle East for the annual BRIGHT STAR exercise. Aircraft from the 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (SOAR) were supporting in the Persian Gulf region and at JRTC, and staff planners were attending an exercise conference in New Mexico. The headquarters staffs at Fort Bragg, North Carolina, were going about their daily routine. For ARSOF soldiers, it was just another day.
Within hours of the 3,052 Americans being murdered at the World Trade Center in New York; at the Pentagon in Washington, DC; and in a Pennsylvania field, the posture of the U.S. military changed to full alert, and preparations for war began—threat and defense conditions had been raised to the highest levels based on the multiple terrorist attacks. CENTCOM, whose area of responsibility (AOR) spanned the Middle East and Eurasia, cancelled all official travel in the region, and the U.S. European Command (EUCOM) cancelled all regional exercises. U.S. intelligence agencies focused maximum effort on identifying the perpetrators of the attacks and heading off follow-up assaults. Federal buildings and U.S. defense installations quickly instituted stringent access procedures to inspect vehicles and to verify the identity of all personnel seeking entrance. The thorough implementation of these increased security measures initially resulted in lengthy waits at entry checkpoints and traffic backups that affected both the installations and the surrounding civilian communities. Within a 10-mile radius of Fort Bragg, there were major traffic delays. USASOC soldiers were issued weapons and ammunition and joined other Fort Bragg soldiers to close access roads, install traffic barriers, stretch concertina wire, and guard family housing areas and headquarters. Although all soldiers receive some basic infantry skills training, many found themselves on guard duty, having never performed that role. In several support units, noncommissioned officers (NCOs) with previous infantry experience taught their troops how to walk a guard post, to challenge anyone who approached them, and what to do when faced by a perceived threat. “Force Protection” had real meaning, and unit commanders scrutinized security measures to protect soldiers and their families, units, and installations. Shortages of critical equipment were sent directly to Department of the Army. The “lock down” at Fort Bragg, home of USASOC and the 82nd Airborne Division, “America’s Guard of Honor,” pulled national media reporters like a magnet.
The Washington Post had speculated on 15 September that Special Forces would be at the center of America’s response. While individual National Guardsmen and Army reservists were being mobilized openly and tight security measures were being followed at U.S. military installations nationwide, CENTCOM and its regional special operations headquarters—the Special Operations Command Central (SOCCENT)—were summoning operations and logistics planners to Tampa, Florida, from USASOC to develop plans to retaliate against the terrorists. Less than a week after 9/11, Defense Secretary Rumsfeld gave the battle against terrorism a name—Operation ENDURING FREEDOM (OEF). By 5 October, commanders had decided on possible courses of action. Staffs worked to prepare documents necessary to implement any of the courses of action being considered so that when the JCS made decisions, the implementing commands of CENTCOM, SOCCENT, and USSOCOM could issue warning orders, operation orders, supporting plans, and overseas deployment orders. As it turned out, Rumsfeld personally set the date to begin infiltrations into Afghanistan.
Figure 6. Defense Secretary Rumsfeld names the operational efforts.
The JCS designated CENTCOM as the supported combatant command. CENTCOM was to “fight the war,” and Franks was in charge. All other defense commands would furnish what CENTCOM requested. That headquarters implemented the guidance of President Bush. SOCCENT rapidly became the focus for military operations. Franks’ mission was to destroy the al-Qaeda terrorist organization and its infrastructure and then to provide military support to humanitarian operations. To accomplish these tasks, the CENTCOM combatant commander had to build a force that allowed for credible military options, conduct initial combat operations and establish the conditions for follow-on operations, build coalition military support and execute decisive combat operations, prevent the reemergence of terrorism, and provide support to humanitarian relief efforts. The SOCCENT commander, Rear Admiral (RADM) Bert Calland, recognized that his command had to get SOF with their unique capabilities into Afghanistan to destroy al-Qaeda.
SOF across the spectrum would be needed. Since unconventional warfare (UW) would be a major part, Army Special Forces, those with the most training and experience, would be supported by Psychological Operations (PSYOP) and Civil Affairs (CA) elements. Since PSYOP would support all aspects of the CENTCOM war campaign, Franks established a Joint Psychological Operations Task Force (JPOTF) to coordinate PSYOP efforts. With winter approaching, the Afghan people’s needs had to be considered. Humanitarian assistance would be a major undertaking. That meant Army CA would have a major role. As during the war against Iraq (Operation DESERT STORM), U.S. air power would play a major role in combat operations.