A Dictionary of British and Irish History. Группа авторов

the properties of air through experiments using an air pump, publishing his discoveries in New Experiments … (1660). A second edition (1662) included what became known as ‘Boyle’s Law’ – that the volume of a gas varies inversely to the pressure on it – though it was discovered by an assistant, Richard Towneley. Boyle also advocated a ‘corpuscularist’ theory of matter (that matter is constituted from indivisible corpuscles). He was a founder of the ROYAL SOCIETY (1660). See also SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION.BOYNE, BATTLE OF THEMajor battle of the WILLIAMITE WAR (1688–91), fought near the R. Boyne in Co. Meath (E Ireland), near Drogheda, on 1 July 1690. Protestant forces commanded by King WILLIAM III (English, Irish, Huguenots, Danish, Germans, totalling 36,000; ‘Williamites') defeated forces commanded by (the former king) James VII/II (Irish, French, mostly Catholics, totalling 25,000; ‘Jacobites'). Afterwards James fled abroad (4 July), while William took E Ireland. War continued for another year. See also JAMES VII/II AND IRELAND; ORANGE ORDER, IRELAND.BOYNE VALLEYsee BEND OF THE BOYNEBRACTONCommonly used name for the 13th‐century legal treatise On the Laws and Customs of England (written in Latin). It was named after its supposed author, the justice Henry of Bratton or Bracton (d. 1268). But much of the treatise was written by the mid 1230s when Bratton was young. The justice and bishop William of Raleigh (d. 1250), for whom Bratton worked as clerk, is the likely author. Bratton probably revised the work (1240s–50s) before it was circulated. The major concerns of Bracton are criminal and property law. See also LAW, ENGLAND FROM 1066.BRADLAUGH, CHARLES(b. 26 Sept. 1833 at London, England; d. 30 Jan. 1891 at London, aged 57). Propagandist for atheism, republicanism and BIRTH CONTROL. Elected a Liberal MP in 1880, Bradlaugh objected to swearing an oath on the Bible for admission to the UK House of Commons. Denied his request to affirm instead, he asked to take the oath but was refused. The FOURTH PARTY exploited his expulsion and repeated re‐election to embarrass W.E. GLADSTONE. Bradlaugh was permitted to take the oath and admitted in 1886. An Act to allow affirmation was passed in 1888.BRAOSE FAMILY

      An important noble family in the MARCH OF WALES c.1165–1230, originally from NORMANDY (N France); they descended from Philip de Braose, who settled at Radnor (C Wales) by c.1095 (see BUILTH).

      William Braose (d. perhaps 1175) acquired Brecon c.1165 by marriage; by the early 13th century his descendants had accumulated vast territories in SE Wales. Braose involvement ended with William Braose (d. 1230); succeeded by the BOHUN and MORTIMER families. See also JOHN.

      BREADALBANE, 1ST EARL OF(b. c.1635 in Scotland; d. 19 March 1717 in Scotland, aged about 80). A powerful HIGHLAND chief (of the Campbell CLAN of Glenorchy) and presbyterian, John Campbell was granted titles in 1677 and made earl of Breadalbane in 1681. In 1689 he reluctantly supported the accession of William of Orange (see WILLIAM III). Afterwards, with Sir John DALRYMPLE, Breadalbane was required to obtain loyalty oaths from dissident chiefs. A consequence was the GLENCOE MASSACRE (1692), in which Breadalbane was implicated. In 1695 he was briefly imprisoned for suspected JACOBITISM. Breadalbane opposed the UNION OF ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND (1707) but sat in the British House of Lords (1713–15). He contributed troops to the JACOBITE REBELLION of 1715, but escaped punishment on account of his age.BRÉAUTÉ, FALKES DE

      (b. in Normandy; d. 1226 at Rome, Italy). Of obscure origin, de Bréauté was in the service of King JOHN in England by 1207. During John’s conflict with rebel barons in 1215–16, he was a commander of royalist forces (see MAGNA CARTA), and was rewarded with marriage to an earl’s widow, thereby gaining extensive estates.

      After the accession of HENRY III, de Bréauté helped to defeat French and baronial forces at Lincoln (May 1217; see ENGLAND, FRENCH INVASION (1216–17)), and he remained a leading government officer. But in Dec. 1223, having made enemies, he agreed to resign his sheriffdoms and castles though he resisted loss of his estates. Having submitted to Henry (19 Aug. 1224), he went into overseas exile (Oct.).

      BREDA, DECLARATION OFThe statement issued at Breda in the Dutch Republic on 4 April 1660 by CHARLES II, exiled king of England, Ireland and Scotland. Prepared at the suggestion of General MONCK, it was issued during elections in England and Wales to the CONVENTION PARLIAMENT. Charles, who was seeking to regain his thrones, promised conditional pardons to former enemies, settlement of pay arrears for the Army, that Parliament could resolve disputed land titles, and advocated religious liberty. The Declaration was read in Parliament on 1 May and encouraged the RESTORATION. See also CLARENDON, EARL OF.BREHONsee BREHON LAWBREHON LAW

      Term used for Old Irish laws, which were written down from the 8th century in such tracts as Senchas Már (OIr., meaning ‘Great Tradition’); derived from OIr. brithem (‘brehon’ in English), meaning ‘judge’ or ‘jurist’. Law making and justice were usually the preserve of the brithemain, who comprised one of the LEARNED CLASSES. Although kings were not lawgivers, they could issue emergency provisions.

      Ireland in effect lacked a concept of criminal law. All felonies and misdemeanours were civil offences. While certain laws dealt with such crimes as murder, assault and theft, they were concerned with the provision of compensation for a victim and his kin rather than punishment of criminals. Various tracts dealt with land, contracts and pledges, personal injuries, SOCIAL STRUCTURE, and FAMILY AND KINSHIP (including related obligations such as fosterage and marriage).

      Although society was generally patriarchal, the laws accorded women considerable status. Women could not normally give legal witness, and could inherit only a life‐interest in property, but they had rights in marriage and divorce based on the property they had contributed to a marriage. Women were jointly responsible with their husbands for rearing children.

      Despite reinterpretations, brehon law survived in Gaelic Irish areas, particularly ULSTER (N Ireland), until the end of the ‘Gaelic era’ (early 17th century). In 1920–2 revolutionary courts run by SINN FÉIN admitted citations from ‘early Irish law‐codes’, but the IRISH FREE STATE (founded 1922) in principle followed the English legal system.

       BRÉIFNE

      A kingdom in NW Ireland, between CONNACHT (W Ireland) and AIRGIALLA (N Ireland), created in the late 8th century by the Uí Briúin Bréifne dynasty from Connacht. By the 10th century they had expanded south‐eastwards (modern Co. Cavan); in the 12th century they governed part of MEATH (E Ireland). By then, their ruling family had adopted the surname Ua Ruairc (English, O'Rourke).

      After the death of Tigernán Ua Ruairc (1172), the dynasty's power collapsed and Meath was taken by Anglo‐Normans (see LACY, HUGH DE). The remainder of Bréifne remained outside direct Anglo‐Norman control, but by the mid 13th century broke into two: W Bréifne (modern Co. Leitrim) under the O'Rourkes, E Bréifne (modern Co. Cavan) under the O'Reillys (Irish, Ó Ragallaig). Both dynasties survived until the late 16th century. Brian O'Rourke was hanged by the English in 1591 and his kingdom was later included in the ULSTER PLANTATION. See also MAC MURCHADA, DIARMAIT.

BRÉTIGNY, TREATY OFConcluded on 8 May 1360 at Brétigny (N France), between English and French representatives, ending the first phase of the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. The ransom for releasing King John II of France from English custody was reduced. John would cede lands and sovereignty in SW and N France, including the duchy of Aquitaine and CALAIS, to King EDWARD III of England. Edward would cede Normandy and Touraine, and renounce his claim to the French Crown. It was a poor outcome for Edward given his military dominance. The treaty was replaced (24 Oct.) by the treaty of Calais, which omitted John’s cession of sovereignty and Edward’s renunciation of his claim. See also GASCONY.BRETTON WOODS AGREEMENTSArrangements made in July 1944 by 44 Allied powers, including the UK (represented by J.M. KEYNES), at the United Nations International Monetary and Financial Conference, Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, USA. They created a monetary system, for implementation after WORLD WAR II, designed to provide stability: it involved fixed exchange rates based on the dollar and gold, an International Monetary Fund to provide liquidity, and a World Bank for longer‐term loans. Currency values could be changed only in exceptional circumstances. The pound sterling was devalued from $4.03 to $2.80 (1949), and to $2.40 (1967). The system collapsed from 1971 and currencies