Beer‐brewing, using hops for flavouring and preservation, was introduced by German immigrants in the late 14th century. During the 16th and 17th centuries ‘common breweries’ (businesses usually run by men which sold to inns and individuals) were founded in towns, but LONDON remained the major centre until the 19th century. Around 1700 it produced a quarter of England’s beer, though there were prominent businesses elsewhere (e.g., Burton‐on‐Trent, Staffordshire, with high‐quality water). London brewers used coal instead of wood for heating from the 16th century, and coke from the mid 17th century.
In 1722 ‘porter’ (strong, dark beer) was invented near London. It was suitable for large‐scale production and kept well. For over 50 years several London breweries were the largest industrial businesses (e.g., Whitbread’s). From the 1820s ‘pale ale’ beer was popular and widely exported (e.g., to India).
The spread of RAILWAYS from the 1830s increased marketing areas. Brewing expanded notably at Burton‐on‐Trent (26 breweries by 1869). Specializing in ‘pale ale’, its production surpassed that of London. Brewing by retailers and public houses declined rapidly. In Wales, brewing expanded in industrial areas from the 1830s.
In the 20th century commercial breweries in England and Wales declined from over 3000 in 1900 to under 200 in 1980, with many Welsh brewers being absorbed by English companies. But a ‘Campaign for Real Ale’ later encouraged a growth of ‘microbreweries’ serving small areas.
BREWING INDUSTRY, IRELAND
Ale was widely brewed in rural households until at least the 17th century, when commercial beer‐brewing became established, using imported hops. Most breweries (probably over 1000 in 1700) were small and produced for direct retail sale. Large‐scale production was concentrated in DUBLIN.
By the 1770s breweries faced strong English competition. (Beer imports rose from 15,000 barrels in 1750 to 100,000 in 1792.) Some responded by expanding output, and by 1814 exports exceeded imports, though breweries declined (937 in 1790 to 247 in 1837).
Output continued to rise during the 19th century, with Dublin and CORK as primary centres and GUINNESS (Dublin), producing ‘stout’, predominant by 1840. Beer output trebled between the 1850s and 1914. By 1900 Dublin breweries produced about three‐quarters of total beer output, with two‐thirds of that brewed by Guinness. Forty per cent of production was exported, mostly by Guinness. Brewery numbers declined to 28 by 1914.
Guinness remained Ireland’s pre‐eminent brewer, also producing lager from 1952. In the early 21st century there were 16 breweries in the Republic of Ireland and three in Northern Ireland, and some new ‘microbreweries’.
BREWING INDUSTRY, SCOTLAND
References to brewing date from the 12th century onwards. By the 15th century domestic brewing was widespread, often carried out by women. Ale was the staple drink. By the 17th century commercial brewing was established in Lowland towns.
In the 18th century numerous large breweries were founded such as H. & R. Tennent (Glasgow, 1740) and William Younger (Leith, 1749), which also produced beer and soon superseded domestic production. They usually continued as family businesses. By c.1850 there were nearly 300 breweries. From the late 19th century Scotland produced light ales and lager. Exports were considerable between c.1850 and 1914.
By the 1990s takeovers had reduced numbers to a mere seven large brewers, though smaller breweries were also reappearing. By 2017 there were about 115 breweries, most operated by ‘craft’ brewers. Scottish beers have a more malty and less hoppy flavour than their English counterparts.
BREXIT
Shorthand term for ‘British Exit’ from the European Union (EU), coined in May 2012 by the British pro‐EU campaigner Peter Wilding by analogy with ‘Grexit’ (invented Feb. 2012 for a possible ‘Greek Exit’ from the euro currency). Originally considered hypothetical, Brexit became possible in 2015 when the UK’s (Conservative) government legislated for a referendum on membership, to negate electoral pressure from the anti‐EU UNITED KINGDOM INDEPENDENCE PARTY and anti‐EU sentiment within the Conservative Party by settling the issue. Prime Minister David CAMERON expected to win endorsement of membership.
The referendum (23 June 2016) produced a majority for ‘leave’ (52% to 48%), causing Cameron to resign. He was succeeded by Theresa MAY, previously a ‘remainer’. Notice of departure, authorized by Parliament, was served on the EU on 29 March 2017, to become effective two years later.
In June 2017 May held a general election to assist Brexit: she expected to strengthen her authority by increasing her House of Commons majority. The reverse happened. The majority was lost and May became reliant on support from DEMOCRATIC UNIONIST PARTY (DUP) MPs from NORTHERN IRELAND. Her withdrawal strategy (‘Chequers Plan’, July 2018) prompted two Cabinet ministers to resign (including Boris JOHNSON), and her withdrawal agreement with the EU was rejected three times by the Commons (Jan.–March 2019). It was opposed by many Conservatives for alleged excessive concessions, by the LABOUR PARTY Opposition mainly for party advantage, and by other parties (e.g., LIBERAL DEMOCRATS, SCOTTISH NATIONAL PARTY) because they opposed Brexit. DUP MPs and many Conservatives particularly resisted an ‘Irish backstop’, which might leave Northern Ireland indefinitely subject to EU regulations (to prevent a ‘hard border’ in Ireland). Brexit was eventually postponed to 31 Oct. Conservatives reacted to the impasse by pressurizing May into resignation.
May was replaced by ‘Brexiteer’ Boris Johnson (July). His willingness to countenance a ‘no deal’ departure was stymied by opponents in Parliament, who legislated (Sept.) for the prime minister to request a three‐month extension if Parliament had not accepted a deal or a no‐deal departure by 19 Oct. Although Johnson obtained a revised withdrawal agreement (17 Oct.), continuing opposition resulted in postponement of the UK’s departure. Conservative victory in a general election (12 Dec. 2019) enabled the UK to leave the EU on 31 Jan. 2020. See also ROYAL PREROGATIVE; EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY/EUROPEAN UNION, IMPACT ON BRITISH POLITICS.
BRIAN BÓRUMA (BRIAN BORU)
(b. c.941 at Béal Boru, Munster, S Ireland; d. 23 April 1014, Clontarf, Leinster, E Ireland, aged about 73). Brian succeeded as high‐king of the Dál Cais in MUNSTER in 976 and by 982 was Munster's high‐king. He then intermittently fought MÁEL SECHNAILL MAC DOMNAILL, high‐king of the Southern UÍ NÉILL (E Ireland) and of Ireland. By 996 Brian was dominant in S Ireland.
In 997 Brian pressurized Máel Sechnaill into sharing the high‐kingship (S Ireland to Brian), and in 1002 obtained Máel Sechnaill's submission, ending Uí Néill monopoly of the high‐kingship. Brian then campaigned in N Ireland, securing widespread recognition as high‐king by 1011. In 1012 Leinstermen and their Scandinavian allies began to rebel. Brian defeated them at CLONTARF in 1014, but was then killed. In the late 11th century his descendants adopted his name as their surname; see O'BRIEN FAMILY.
BRIDEI SON OF BELI(fl. from 671; d. 692, probably in N Britain). From 671 Bridei ruled the northern Pictish kingdom of FORTRIU (in modern NE Scotland), and is the first to be named as its king (in Irish sources). But he was an outsider; his family was southern Pictish (probably from Fife), his father was a king in Brittonic STRATHCLYDE, and his mother was a daughter of King EDWIN of Northumbria. Through her, he was a cousin of the dominant Northumbrian king EGFRITH, who controlled southern Pictland and probably installed Bridei as a puppet in northern Pictland. But Mercians defeated Egfrith in 679, and thereafter Bridei exerted his own power, devastating the ORKNEY ISLANDS (681) and capturing strongholds in southern Pictland. Egfrith reacted by leading an army north in 685, but was defeated and killed probably near (modern) Forfar (see DÚN NECHTAIN, BATTLE OF). That ended Northumbrian power north of the R. Forth, and enabled Bridei to dominate both northern and southern Pictland. See also PICTS; KINGSHIP, NORTH BRITAIN.BRIDEI SON