Est. popn: 1300, 1000; 1600, 2500; 1800, 73,000; 1900, 552,000; 2000, 1,025,000.
BIRMINGHAM CAUCUSName for the Birmingham Liberal Association, founded 1865 in the English town of BIRMINGHAM; the first permanent local party organization in Great Britain. In a three‐member constituency, where each elector had two votes, it directed supporters so as to secure three Liberal MPs. It became the power base of Joseph CHAMBERLAIN. See also LIBERAL PARTY.BIRRELL, AUGUSTINE(b. 19 Jan. 1850 at Wavertree, Lancashire, England; d. 20 Nov. 1933 at London, England, aged 83). A lawyer, prolific author and (Liberal) member of the UK Parliament (1889–1900, 1906–18), Birrell served as CHIEF SECRETARY FOR IRELAND from Jan. 1907. He encouraged the HOME RULE MOVEMENT, established the National University of Ireland, acceptable to Catholics (1908; see UNIVERSITIES, IRELAND), and compelled the sale of some estates (1909 Land Act, the ‘Birrell Act’). Birrell failed, however, to appreciate the growing strength of republicanism and was surprised by the EASTER RISING of 1916. After it had been crushed, he resigned (3 May). See also LAND AGITATION AND REFORM, IRELAND.BIRTH CONTROLArtificial methods (alternatives to long‐used ‘natural’ methods) spread in Great Britain from the 1870s with the manufacture of rubber sheaths or condoms and development of women’s products (e.g., Dutch cap). The distribution of condoms to soldiers in WORLD WAR I (1914–18), to combat venereal disease, extended awareness. Artificial birth control contributed to declining fertility in Britain into the 1930s, leading to a smaller average family size. Its use was controversial, particularly in the 1920s (e.g., when promoted publicly by Marie STOPES), but was accepted by the Church of England in 1930. The Roman Catholic Church remained opposed. Contraceptive pills for women, available from 1961, notably changed sexual behaviour. See also BRADLAUGH, CHARLES; BESANT, ANNIE.BIRTH CONTROL, SOUTHERN IRELANDIn 1935 the IRISH FREE STATE prohibited the import or sale of contraceptive devices. The availability of contraceptive pills from 1961 (not prohibited) led to challenges against legislation (e.g., 1971, overt import of devices from NORTHERN IRELAND on the ‘contraceptive train’). In 1973 the Republic’s Supreme Court deemed the importation ban illegal (McGee case). The 1979 Family Planning Act, passed despite Catholic opposition, allowed contraceptives to married couples on prescription. Sales to all persons over 18 were allowed in 1985. See also WOMEN’S MOVEMENT FROM 1960s, IRELAND; CHURCH–STATE RELATIONS, SOUTHERN IRELAND FROM 1922.BISHOPS’ BOOKA comprehensive doctrinal statement compiled by bishops and other clergy for the English Church (full title, Institution of a Christian Man), authorized Sept. 1537 by King HENRY VIII for three years. More conservative than the TEN ARTICLES (1536), the book affirmed Catholic sacraments and the doctrine of purgatory. Nevertheless, its theology allowed a Lutheran interpretation, and it was hostile to the Catholic cult of images. See also KING’S BOOK; REFORMATION, ENGLAND.BISHOPS’ EXCLUSION BILLLegislation proposed in the English Parliament in 1641–2 to exclude bishops from the House of Lords, to overcome their resistance to political and ecclesiastical reforms. It was passed by the House of Commons on 23 Oct. 1641, by the Lords on 13 Feb. 1642. King CHARLES I accepted the Bill on 14 Feb. to buy time and enable Queen HENRIETTA MARIA to escape abroad. The Act was repealed by the CAVALIER PARLIAMENT in 1661. See also LONG PARLIAMENT.BISHOPS’ WARSsee COVENANT, WARS OF THE, OR BISHOPS’ WARSBLACK, JOSEPH
(b. 16 April 1728 at Bordeaux, France; d. 6 Dec. 1799 at Edinburgh, Scotland, aged 71). The son of an Ulsterman in the wine trade, Black studied at GLASGOW University from 1744, eventually specializing in medicine, and at EDINBURGH University from 1752. His doctoral thesis (1754) indicated the existence of a gas distinct from ‘common air’. Further experiments, published in 1756, showed that a ‘fixed air’, derived from a solid, could be distinguished from air in the atmosphere, launching the crucial idea that gases could be differentiated in the same way as liquids and solids.
Black succeeded William CULLEN at Glasgow as lecturer in chemistry (1756), and soon became a professor. He developed the concept of ‘latent heat’ (the energy absorbed by a substance which causes change, as ice is affected before melting). James WATT was a friend. Succeeding Cullen as professor of chemistry at Edinburgh in 1766, Black undertook research to improve industrial processes and public health. Though he published little, he was influential internationally through his students. See also ENLIGHTENMENT, SCOTLAND.
BLACK ACTName for legislation, passed by the British PARLIAMENT in 1723, which created over 50 new capital offences in England and Wales connected with poaching and property. An addition to the GAME LAWS, it was provoked by the activity of poaching gangs who blackened their faces. The Act was the most severe statute passed in the 18th century. It was regularly renewed until most provisions were repealed in 1827. See also LAW, ENGLAND FROM 1066; LEGAL REFORMS, ENGLAND AND WALES, 1820s.BLACK ACTSName (of obscure origin) for Acts of the Scottish Parliament in May 1584 reflecting the anti‐presbyterian influence of James STEWART, earl of Arran and chancellor (1584–5). They denounced presbyteries, proclaimed royal supremacy over matters spiritual and temporal, confirmed the authority of bishops and made them primarily responsible to the Crown rather than the General Assembly (altering the Concordat of LEITH). See also CHURCH ORGANIZATION, SCOTLAND FROM 16TH CENTURY.BLACK AND TANSNickname for British ex‐soldiers who served during the War of IRISH INDEPENDENCE as reinforcements to the Royal Irish Constabulary, March 1920–July 1921. The name, taken from a pack of hunting hounds in Co. Limerick, was first used in April 1920 when a group rampaged through Limerick. Their initial ‘uniform' was a mix of dark green (RIC) and khaki (army). They became notorious for violent reprisals against republican sympathizers. See also IRISH FREE STATE, FOUNDING OF.BLACK BOOK OF CARMARTHENAn important Welsh manuscript (in the National Library of Wales, Aberystwyth) which was copied c.1250 in CARMARTHEN Priory (SW Wales). It includes early poetry (religious poetry; prophetic poems linked to Merlin; Stanzas of the Graves) and work by 12th‐ and 13th‐century poets including CYNDDELW BRYDYDD MAWR. See also WELSH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.BLACK DEATH, IMPACT ON ENGLAND
The bubonic and pneumonic plague known (from the 16th century) as the ‘Black Death’ affected England in 1348–9. Originating in Asia, it swept through Europe from 1347 and entered England in June 1348, probably at Melcombe Regis (Dorset), coming from CALAIS with imported cloth bales. Transmitted by rats and fleas, the plague spread through southern counties and into the Midlands in 1348 and early 1349. After subsiding, it revived in March 1349 and advanced through northern England. All communities and social groups suffered, though to varying extents. Probably over 2 million people died out of 5 million. A second outbreak in 1361–2 killed about 1 million.
The population fall had far‐reaching social and economic consequences. Labour shortages caused wage rises and internal migration. Lords could not enforce LABOUR SERVICES, and eventually leased their directly managed lands (‘demesnes’) to tenants (see MANOR). Statutes to protect lords’ interests caused unrest (see LABOURERS, ORDINANCE AND STATUTE OF), culminating in the PEASANTS’ REVOLT. See also PLAGUE, ENGLAND.
BLACK DEATH, IMPACT ON IRELANDThe plague reportedly arrived via the east‐coast port of Howth (Co. Dublin) in July 1348. It spread quickly to DUBLIN and Drogheda and across the country. According to the Franciscan friar John Clyn, Dublin and other Anglo‐Irish towns became almost uninhabited. Archbishop Richard FITZRALPH claimed that two‐thirds of the Anglo‐Irish population were killed, but that Gaelic Irish were less affected. The plague hastened the shrinkage of the English colony as inhabitants moved to towns or England. See also PLAGUE, IRELAND; IRELAND, ENGLISH COLONY IN, 13TH–15TH CENTURIES.BLACK DEATH, IMPACT ON SCOTLAND
The plague arrived from England in autumn 1349 and spread through 1350. Although it made the most savage cut of population in Scottish history, chroniclers' claims that a third perished may imply lower mortality than elsewhere in Britain. Few MAGNATES died. As elsewhere, plague returned several times later in the 14th century.
The