A Dictionary of British and Irish History. Группа авторов

to Baron von Overbeck, Austro‐Hungarian consul at HONG KONG, and Overbeck had conveyed his rights to Dent (1880). The charter obliged the company to administer justice with regard to native law, and to preserve native religion and customs. A British PROTECTORATE was established in 1888. The company administered North Borneo until it became a CROWN COLONY in 1946 (except during Japanese occupation, 1942–5).BRITISH SCIENCE ASSOCIATIONsee BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCEBRITISH SOMALILANDA former British territory on the Gulf of Aden in E Africa (now part of Somalia). British forces occupied the coast in 1884 to secure the sea route to ADEN and supplies. After treaties had been negotiated with various sultans, a PROTECTORATE was declared in 1888. Tribal raiding, led by Mahommed bin Abdullah Hassan (the so‐called ‘Mad Mullah’), hindered administration inland until 1920. The territory was united with Italian Somaliland in 1960 to form the independent Somali Republic. Approx. population in 1921, 345,000; in 1959, 500,000. See also EAST AFRICA, BRITISH INVOLVEMENT.BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA COMPANYA commercial company incorporated in 1888 and led by Cecil RHODES (d. 1902). In 1889 it was authorized by royal charter to administer and exploit a large area of SE Africa. It created and ran the territories known as SOUTHERN RHODESIA and NORTHERN RHODESIA, retaining sovereign rights until 1924 (expiry of charter). In 1965 the company merged its business with other companies and continued as a non‐trading entity.BRITONS IN ANGLO‐SAXON KINGDOMSFrom the 5th century men of Germanic origin established kingdoms in southern Britain which contained a majority of British (Brittonic‐speaking) inhabitants. British inhabitants are acknowledged in the laws of King ÆTHELBERT of KENT (d. 616). Their social structure included nobles, freemen and unfree peasants, but they were reckoned at lower status than corresponding Germanic inhabitants (see WERGELD). A similar situation appears in the laws of INE of WESSEX (d. c.726). The majority Britons eventually assimilated to the culture of the Germanic minority (by 9th century). See also GERMANIC IMMIGRATION, SOUTHERN BRITAIN; CEMETERIES, EARLY GERMANIC.BRITTEN, BENJAMIN(b. 22 Nov. 1913 at Lowestoft, Suffolk, England; d. 4 Dec. 1976 at Aldeburgh, Suffolk, aged 73). An accomplished composer as a teenager, Britten studied at the Royal College of Music (1930–3) and developed a modernist idiom without abandoning tonality. He quickly built a reputation with both instrumental and vocal works (e.g., song‐cycle Our Hunting Fathers, 1936). A conscientious objector to war, Britten lived in the USA 1939–42, during WORLD WAR II. After his return to Great Britain, he composed Peter Grimes (performed 1945), the first of several operas to join the international repertoire, and founded the Aldeburgh Festival (1948). Later works include the War Requiem (1961). Created Lord Britten (1976), he was the first composer to become a peer.BRIXTON AND TOXTETH RIOTS

      In Great Britain, two large outbreaks of urban disorder in 1981, a period of high unemployment, inflation and widespread disturbances. Both occurred in areas with substandard housing and AFRICAN CARIBBEAN populations.

      In Brixton, S London, on Saturday 11 April 1981 a predominantly black crowd attacked a heavy police presence, following a week of intensive policing and, on the previous evening, a battle between black youths and police. For the first time in Britain, petrol bombs were thrown at police; police vehicles were burned, 28 buildings were torched and 117 other buildings damaged. A visit the next day by the home secretary, William Whitelaw, provoked more rioting and looting, also involving white gangs.

      In Toxteth, LIVERPOOL (NW England), rioting by black and white youths took place from 4 to 12 July, following a confrontation between youths and the police on 3 July. 500 people were arrested, 460 police were injured and 70 buildings were demolished. Police used CS gas for the first time in Britain.

      Responses included the government‐commissioned ‘Scarman Report’ on the Brixton Riots (1981), by the senior judge Lord Scarman, which criticized the treatment of black people by the police and urged tackling of racial disadvantages. After the Toxteth Riots Michael HESELTINE, the environment secretary, encouraged regeneration in Liverpool, and Robert RUNCIE, archbishop of Canterbury, commissioned a report on inner‐city problems, Faith in the City (1985). See also ETHNIC AND NATIONAL MINORITIES, ENGLAND.

BROADCASTING, ENGLANDsee RADIO BROADCASTING, GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN IRELAND; TELEVISION, GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN IRELANDBROADCASTING, NORTHERN IRELAND

      From 15 Sept. 1924 the British Broadcasting Company (BBC) radio station ‘2BE’ transmitted the BBC’s national programme and local items over a limited area from BELFAST. When the BBC became a corporation (1927), it was renamed BBC Northern Ireland. A new transmitter covered the entire province from 1936. Music predominated in local programming until c.1933 when speech programmes (e.g., talks, plays) became more prominent. Apart from news, current affairs were avoided to placate the Unionist government, thereby alienating Catholics, though the BBC co‐operated with southern Ireland’s station despite criticism.

      During WORLD WAR II (1939–45), local programming ceased. On resumption, broadcasts included programmes from NE England because of a wavelength shortage (to 1963). The station sought to present Northern Ireland positively but was criticized for limited interest in Gaelic Irish culture; requests for Irish language programmes were refused, although Irish music was broadcast.

      The threat of commercial radio provoked the BBC into transforming its station into Radio Ulster (1975), giving local programmes priority. From 1979 BBC Radio Foyle provided programmes for Co. Londonderry within Radio Ulster’s schedule. Commercial broadcasting began with Downtown Radio (1976). The Belfast CityBeat station (1996–2015) won numerous awards.

      The BBC relayed television to Northern Ireland from 1953. During the 1950s local programming gradually expanded, spurred from 1959 by competition from the commercial station Ulster TV (part of the Independent Television Network). BBC Two was inaugurated in 1964. Television broadcasting notably made the world aware of the TROUBLES (1968–90s) and influenced their course. See also BRITISH BROADCASTING CORPORATION.

       BROADCASTING, SCOTLAND

      The first radio stations of the commercial British Broadcasting Company (BRITISH BROADCASTING CORPORATION from 1927) included four in Scotland: Glasgow and Aberdeen (1923), Edinburgh and Dundee (1924). They broadcast both London‐originated and locally produced programmes. In 1930, except for Aberdeen, they were replaced by a single National Region for Scotland which produced some programming. After restructuring of ‘BBC’ radio programmes into four services in 1967, most Scottish material appeared as ‘opt‐outs’ on Radio 4.

      The development of commercial radio in Scotland began with Radio Clyde (1973) in Glasgow. It prompted the BBC to develop its services. It inaugurated BBC Radio Orkney, BBC Radio Shetland (both 1977) and BBC Radio Scotland (1978). From 1985 BBC Radio nan Gàidheal broadcast material in Gaelic. By 2017 there were about 36 local commercial stations as well as smaller community stations and other forms of radio broadcasting.

      The BBC began television broadcasts in Scotland in 1952, although few programmes were originated locally. Under the 1954 Television Act two commercial stations were started within Scotland: Scottish Television (1957, later STV), covering C Scotland; Grampian (1961), for NE Scotland (also N Scotland from 1982). Border TV (1961) covered the border region and SW from NW England. The BBC started a second channel in 1964, with its channels becoming known as BBC1 Scotland and BBC2 Scotland. In 1997 the owner of STV acquired Grampian, and in 2006 rebranded the stations as STV Central and STV North.

      New technologies developed in the 1980s–90s were utilized to provide television in Gaelic. The commercial digital channel TeleG operated from 1999 to 2011, and the satellite and cable service BBC Alba from 2008 (a partnership with the Gaelic Media Service, created by the UK 2003 Communications Act). See also GAELDOM, SCOTLAND.

       BROADCASTING, SOUTHERN IRELAND

      Regular radio broadcasts began in the IRISH FREE STATE on 1 Jan. 1926 with a speech by Douglas HYDE, mostly in Irish. The station, ‘2RN’, operated under the Department for Posts and Telegraphs with some State funding. It was renamed Radio Athlone (1933) and Radio Éireann (1937). Programmes included Irish language lessons, sports reports and music, but little news reporting. A committee, Comhairle Radio Éireann,