Encyclopedia of Glass Science, Technology, History, and Culture. Группа авторов

transportation costs of both raw materials and finished products. Although not necessarily rare geologically, however, certain minerals are not commonly found in commercially exploitable amounts with the consequence that they have to be procured globally, national policies sometimes applying heavy, protectionist custom fees to limit exportations. This situation applies, for instance, to lithium, boron, and some aluminum carriers.

      In glassmaking, lithium occasionally serves as an additive (flux) for the production of standard soda‐lime silica glasses, but it is mainly used for glass‐ceramics to form the β‐spodumene [LiAlSi₂O₆] phase that gives them very low thermal expansion coefficients (Chapter 7.11). But the price of Li₂O raw materials has been boosted – it has actually almost tripled – during the last decade, driven by the dramatically increasing demand for Li‐ion batteries (Chapter 9.5). Among the available Li₂O raw materials (Table 1), Li from brines is mostly used to manufacture Li‐carbonate or hydroxide (battery‐grade raw materials), whereas mineral Li is incorporated into glass and ceramics. Concentrates of both minerals, spodumene and petalite, are actually crucial sources for the glass industry [17, 18], which does not require as high a purity as Li‐ion battery makers. These Li‐silicate sources are abundantly available in Australia, China, the United States, and Canada, but much rarer and mostly unexploited in Europe (Austria, Finland, Ireland, Portugal, and Spain) where most of the glass‐ceramic industries are in fact located.

      As for boron, this element is important for the production of reinforcement fibers (Chapter 1.5) and for insulation (Chapter 9.3) and textile glasses. Borates are found in Turkey, the United States, China, Russia, and South America. Turkey is the world's biggest producer and holds the largest reserves. The United States ranks second both in terms of reserves production, with about 40% of the market [19]. In this case too, the heterogeneous distribution of boron sources translates into high transportation costs as a component of the raw‐material supplies.

Figure 7 Increases of iron contamination caused by grinding of quartz made with steel‐bearing jaws to shift the particle size distribution. (a) Iron contents associated with the PSD curves of quartz sand and flour ground. (b) Alignment of steel particles in the magnetic field of the separator during the deferrization step of raw‐material beneficiation. Picture scale of 0.5 m.

Concerning aluminum, bauxites and laterites are used as Al‐carrier in standard industrial glasses. The main and largest exploited ores, representing more than 90% of the reserves, are located in Western Africa (especially Guinea), Brazil, Central America and the Caribbean (Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Suriname) and Australia [20]. In this market, however, glassmakers are very distant followers of alumina‐ceramics makers and especially of metallic aluminum producers whose needs are several orders of magnitude higher than theirs. In instances when relatively high contents of both aluminum and alkalis are required, it may be advantageous to use instead nepheline syenite, a rock consisting mainly of alkali feldspars and nepheline [NaAlSiO₄], which is exploited and exported from Norway, Russia (Kola Peninsula), South‐Africa, Brazil, India, and China.

5 Perspectives

More than 100 million tons of glass (container, flat, fiber, and specialty) are produced yearly. In a society moving toward a CO₂‐less or ‐free economy, extra‐clear glasses will play a key role for the development of an efficient solar energy market. As the availability of extra‐pure raw materials is not infinite [16], however, beneficiation techniques will need to be improved in order to meet cost‐efficient requirements adapted to the forthcoming societal challenges. In terms of both volumes and quality, middle‐ and long‐term availability of raw materials is a major challenge for sustainable, cost‐related production. But a successful low‐carbon society implies the fast development of infrastructures and commodity products, which contribute to the overall industrial minerals’ demand in direct competition with the glass raw materials supply chain [16]. Governmental initiatives, such as the European Union ERA‐MIN Program [21] and the EIT Raw Materials, intend to build an EU‐wide network linking industry, academia, and research institutes capable of sustaining the domestic supply chain of non‐energy mineral resources. In parallel, efforts are made to improve batch recipes through either the use of standard raw materials with lower energy consumption [22], or totally new ways exploiting the huge potential of the recycling supply chain. Food and agriculture wastes, for instance, could allow making glass with “exotic” sources such as eggshells for Ca‐carbonate, banana peels as K‐carrier, or rice husk for silica [23]. Major changes are likely on the way.

References

      1 1 Barton, J. and Guillemet, C. (2005). Le verre: Science et Technologie. Les Ullis: EDP Sciences.

      2 2 Cable, M. (2010). Bontemps on Glass Making: The Guide du Verrier of Georges Bontemps. Sheffield: Society of Glass Technology.

      3 3 Gouillart, E., Toplis, M.J., Grynberg, J. et al. (2012). In situ synchrotron microtomography reveals multiple reaction pathways during soda‐lime glass synthesis. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 95: 1504–1507.

      4 4 Wills, B.A. and Napier‐Munn, T. (1988). Will's Mineral Processing Technology: An Introduction to the Practical Aspects of Ore Treatment and Mineral Recovery. Amsterdam: Elsevier.

      5 5 Railsback, L.B. (2008). Some fundamentals of mineralogy and geochemistry. Melting – Hardness Plot. http://www.gly.uga.edu/railsback/Fundamentals/HardnessMeltingPlot06.pdf. (accessed October 2019).

      6 6 Chopinet, M.‐H. (2002). L'importance des phénomènes d'oxydo‐réduction dans le verre. C. R. Chim. 5: 939–949.

      7 7 Edwards, B.R. and Russell, J.K. (1996). A review and analysis of silicate mineral dissolution experiments in natural silicate melts. Chem. Geol. 13: 233–245.

      8 8 Ando, S. and Garzanti, E. (2014). Raman spectroscopy in heavy‐mineral studies. In: Sediment Provenance Studies in Hydrocarbon Exploration and Production (eds. R.A. Scott, H.R. Smyth, A.C. Morton and N. Richardson), 395–412. London: Geological Society.

      9 9 Munsterman, D. and Kerstholt, S. (1996). Sodium polytungstate, a new non‐toxic alternative to bromoform in heavy liquid separation. Rev. Palaeobot. Palynol. 91: 417.

      10 10 Bartuška, M. (2008). Glass Defects. Glass Service: Prague.

      11 11 Pascual, M.J., Pascual, L., and Duran, A. (2001). Determination of the viscosity–temperature curve for glasses on the basis of fixed viscosity points determined by hot stage microscopy. Phys. Chem. Glasses 42: 61–66.

      12 12 Prabriputaloong, K. and Piggott, M.R. (1974). The reaction between silica and aluminum. J. Electrochem. Soc.: SSST 121: 430–434.

      13 13 Kasper, A. and Stadelmann, H. (2002). Chemical behavior of nickel sulfide in soda‐lime‐silica glass melts. Glass Sci. Technol. 75: 1–11.

      14 14 McCauley, R.A. and Johnson, L.A. (1991). Decrepitation and thermal decomposition of dolomite. Thermochim. Acta 185: 271–282.

      15 15 Steinhauser, G. (2008). Cleaner production in the Solvay process: general strategies and recent developments. J. Clean. Prod. 16: 833–841.

      16 16