23 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Current arsenal of antiviral drugs. (A) Antiviral drugs approved fr...Figure 8.2 Knowledge of viral reproduction cycles identifies general targets for...Figure 8.3 Path of drug discovery. The flow of information and action followed...Figure 8.4 Mechanism-based screen for inhibitors of a viral protease. The subs...Figure 8.5 Cell-based screen for a viral protease inhibitor. This cell-based a...Figure 8.6 Combinatorial chemistry and the building-block approach to chemical l...Figure 8.7 Structure of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 protease with th...Figure 8.8 A descending staircase of drug discovery. Many compounds must be te...Figure 8.9 Valacyclovir (Valtrex), an l-valyl ester derivative of acyclovir with...Figure 8.10 Viral load depends on the dose of antiviral drug. This relationshi...Figure 8.11 Maraviroc, an inhibitor of attachment of human immunodeficiency viru...Figure 8.12 Interaction of amantadine with the transmembrane domain of the influ...Figure 8.13 Many well-known antiviral compounds are nucleoside and nucleotide an...Figure 8.14 Chain termination by antiviral nucleos(t)ide analogs. (A) Acyclovi...Figure 8.15 The hepatitis C virus polyprotein is cleaved by several proteases. ...Figure 8.16 The prodrug sofosbuvir: structure and activation. The success of t...Figure 8.17 Structure of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 reverse transcripta...Figure 8.18 Two nonnucleoside/nucleotide antiviral compounds. (A) Foscarnet is...Figure 8.19 Strand transfer inhibitors of the human immunodeficiency virus integ...Figure 8.20 Comparison of one natural cleavage site for the human immunodeficien...Figure 8.21 Structure of the hepatitis C virus protease NS3/4A and with a bound ...Figure 8.22 Steps in the reproduction of human immunodeficiency virus and hepati...Figure 8.23 Decreasing length of treatment regimens for infection with hepatitis...Figure 8.24 Anti-human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) therapy saves millions of li...
24 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 “Superspreader” phages of Escherichia coli. These superspreader pha...Figure 9.2 Application of purified bacteriophage lysins to Gram-positive bacteri...Figure 9.3 Sites of cleavage of the peptidoglycans in bacterial cell walls by ph...Figure 9.4 Properties of cancer cells that can facilitate reproduction of oncoly...Figure 9.5 Clinical trials for gene therapy, 1989 to 2018. The number of clini...Figure 9.6 Retrovirus vectors. Schematics of the proviral genomes of murine le...Figure 9.7 Structures of the T-cell receptor (TCR) and chimeric antigen receptor...Figure 9.8 CAR T cells and cytokine release syndrome. Destruction of tumor cel...Figure 9.9 Formation of episomal vector DNA. The genomes of AAV vectors enter ...Figure 9.10 Dual adenovirus-associated virus vectors to deliver large coding seq...Figure 9.11 Introduction of AAV vector particles into the eye. AAV vectors in ...Figure 9.12 Self-complementary AAV vectors. In these vectors, the complementar...Figure 9.13 Adenovirus vectors. High-capacity adenovirus “gutless” vectors con...Figure 9.14 Poxvirus vectors . To produce recombinant poxviruses, the transgene...Figure 9.15 Adenovirus-associated virus vectors. (A) Map of the genome of wild...Figure 9.16 Genome and mRNAs of vesicular stomatitis virus. (A) Genome organiz...Figure 9.17 Yellow fever virus vaccine vector. (A) Genome organization of flav...Figure 9.18 Alphavirus vaccine vector. (A) Genome organization of alphaviruses...Figure 9.19 Newcastle disease virus vaccine vector. (A) Genome organization of...
25 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 Relationship between mutation rate and genome size and nature. Mut...Figure 10.2 Viral quasispecies, population size, bottlenecks, and fitness. Gen...Figure 10.3. Error threshold of an RNA virus. Poliovirus-infected cells were u...Figure 10.4 Muller’s ratchet turns in only one direction. Mutations occur and ...Figure 10.5 Appearance and transmission of distinct serotypes of influenza A vir...Figure 10.6 Origin of life from an RNA world. Multiple lines of scientific evi...Figure 10.7 General scheme of RNA virus evolution based on phylogenomic analyses...Figure 10.8 Phylogeny of reverse transcriptases in retroviruses and pararetrovir...Figure 10.9 Proposed evolution of eukaryotic viruses with single–stranded DNA ge...Figure 10.10. Evolution of eukaryotic viruses with double–stranded DNA genomes ...Figure 10.11 Genetic maps of selected (–) strand RNA viral genomes. Maps of th...Figure 10.12 The genomic and epidemiological dynamics of human influenza A virus...Figure 10.13 RNA virus genomes and evolution. Organization of (+) strand RNA g...Figure 10.14 Host-virus arms race and functional consequences . Schematic repre...Figure 10.15 Integration of nonretroviral sequences into vertebrate genomes. (...
26 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 Ancestral origins of human pathogens. Human viruses from 31 genera...Figure 11.2 Emerging viruses in the popular press. Cover of the book Fever!, w...Figure 11.3 Examples of emerging viruses and the factors that led to their emerg...Figure 11.4 General categories of interactions between hosts and viruses. Four...Figure 11.5 Examples of stable and dead-end host-virus relationships. The illu...Figure 11.6 Stable and dead-end relationships in the reproduction cycle of tick-...Figure 11.7 World population growth over the last 2 millennia . (A) The world p...Figure 11.8 Ecological and anthropogenic activities that promote virus emergence...Figure 11.9 Poliovirus in the early 20th century . (A) The emergence of paralyt...Figure 11.10 The transferrin receptor mediates canine and feline parvovirus host...Figure 11.11 Interspecies transmission of influenza viruses. Nearly all influe...Figure 11.12 Major developments in methods for virus discovery drive the identif...
27 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 Estimated number of people living with HIV-1 worldwide, 2018. Data...Figure 12.2 Evolution of primate lentiviruses. (A) Zoonotic transmission of pr...Figure 12.3 Organization of HIV-1 (A) and HIV-2 proviral DNA (B). The colored ...Figure 12.4 Mechanisms of Tat and Rev function in the HIV-1 reproduction cycle...Figure 12.5 Adapter functions of HIV-1 accessory proteins. The major targets (...Figure 12.6 Mechanism of action of APOBEC3G and degradation by Vif. (Top left)...Figure 12.7 Tetherin traps virions on the cell surface. (A) HIV-1 virus partic...Figure 12.8 HIV-1 CA lattice recognition by TRIM5α. (A) Schematic depicti...Figure 12.9 HIV-1 envelope and receptors. (A) Structure of gp120 trimer (modif...Figure 12.10 HIV-1 dissemination in the body. The first cells productively inf...Figure 12.11 Modes of transmission vary among geographical locations. Distribu...Figure 12.12 Progression of HIV-1 infection. Representative changes in HIV-1 v...Figure 12.13 Effects of HIV-1 infection on the intestinal mucosa. The intestin...Figure 12.14 Effects of HIV-1 infection on lymphoid tissue. (Top) Changes in l...Figure 12.15 Comparison of HIV-1 envelope diversity to that of influenza. Evol...Figure 12.16 Summary of kinetics of HIV-1 reproduction in the body. The percen...Figure 12.17 Clonal expansion of latently infected, central memory CD4+ T cell...Figure 12.18 Antibody evolution against the HIV-1 envelope. (A) Representative...Figure 12.19 Kaposi’s sarcoma in a young man infected with HIV-1. The di...Figure 12.20 Induction of cancers in HIV-1-infected individuals. Infection of ...Figure 12.21 The multifaceted approach to prevention of infection with HIV-1. ...
28 Chapter 13Figure 13.1 Structure of two types of viroid. (A) Model of the potato spindle ...Figure 13.2 Replication of two different types of viroid in plants. (Top) Repl...Figure 13.3 Vertical and horizontal transmission of viroids in plants via pollen...Figure 13.4 Properties of three classes of satellite RNAs. Schematic of the RN...Figure 13.5 Replication of satellite RNA. Satellite RNA enters the plant cell ...Figure 13.6 Genome and virus particle of hepatitis delta virus. (A) Schematic ...Figure 13.7 Three epidemics of Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease. The graphs show the ...Figure 13.8 The conversion of nonpathogenic, α–helix–rich PrPC protein to the β–...Figure 13.9 Three mechanisms for the development of human transmissible spongifo...Figure 13.10 Bovine spongiform encephalopathy in cattle and variant Creutzfeldt–...Figure 13.11 Chronic wasting disease in North America. Distribution of cases o...
29 AppendixFigure 1Figure 2Figure 3Figure 4Figure 5Figure 6Figure 7Figure 8Figure 9Figure 10Figure 11Figure 12Figure 13Figure 14Figure 15Figure 16Figure 17Figure 18Figure 19Figure 20Figure 21Figure 22Figure 23Figure 24Figure 25Figure 26Figure 27Figure