Following the October 2001 invasion by the U.S.-led coalition, the nature of the conflict along the border changed and evolved. After clashing with Coalition forces—including a battle in the Shah-i-Kot area of Paktia province— al-Qaeda and much of the Taliban leadership fled into Pakistan. There followed a period during which local strongmen struggled for power, while the coalition
Map of Afghanistan and Surrounding Countries
Source: Central Intelligence Agency
Accessed: http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/middle_east_and_asia/txuoclc-309295540-afghanistan_pol_2008.jpg, August 2012
and Afghan government also acted to increase their control. After appearing largely defeated, the Taliban and associated insurgents intensified their operations in the border provinces beginning in the spring of 2005, mostly thorough an increased quantity and sophistication of improvised explosive devices (IED) strikes but also through coordinated attacks on patrols, indirect fire attacks on bases, propaganda campaigns, and attacks on pro-government and pro-coalition Afghans.
Geography of RC-East:
The area of eastern Afghanistan covered by RC-East, included 13 provinces, from Nuristan in the north to Paktika Province in the south, and northwest to Bamian Province, then west to Daikundi (later split off from RC-East) The city of Kabul was in its own military zone, and RC-East commands had limited activity in the province of Kabul during this time.
The climate ranges from intense winter cold and heavy snow in Nuristan and other highland areas to oppressive heat and humidity during the summer in Nangarhar and Khost. In RC-East ,temperatures range over the year from more than 20 degrees below Fahrenheit to 130 above. Many areas are nearly desert, although monsoons at times reach this far north, bringing rain to dry areas. These rains and the spring thaw often result in localized flooding, particularly given the deforestation in many areas.
Map of Regional Command East and Adjacent Pakistan
The scarcity of water in many parts of RC-East is a fundamental factor. Average annual precipitation in Gardez is 8.6 inches, in Jalalabad 9.7 inches, and in Bamian only 5.5 inches 2 Irrigation systems are key to agriculture, and determine where much of the rural population lives. Several rivers – the Konar, Kabul, and Khost rivers - have large volumes of water year-round. Other streams are intermittent or flow into salt pans, and many areas are covered in rock, sand and thick dust.
State and Social Disintegration
Although the physical damage resulting from the wars beginning in 1979 was what immediately struck any outsider, conversations between the author and Afghans from various social classes during the 2003-2008 period made it clear that the damage to society was even more extensive. First was the sheer number of people killed, with more than one million Afghan civilians losing their lives in the war against the Soviets1 out of an estimated population of sixteen million in 1979.4 Equally striking were the masses of refugees, with more than five million displaced,5 mostly to Iran and Pakistan, but also to Europe, North America, and Australia.
More subtle damages were the cleavages within society, primarily along ethnic lines. In some areas, such as Khost Province in the east, deep divisions existed between those who sided with the Communist regime and those who fought with the mujahedeen. The Taliban years also left social rifts between those who fought with the Taliban and those (particularly in Tajik and Hazara areas) who opposed them. Adding to this is the fundamental disturbance to the tribal system, particularly in the Pashtun areas where it had been both a local government and a source of stability. On a larger scale, the last twenty-five years of Pakistani involvement in Afghan affairs had caused considerable resentment and suspicion on the part of Afghans.
Social Structure in RC-East
While the violence and dislocations of the last decades certainly had a strong impact on Afghanistan, the cultural constants that held the Afghans together still remained. Foremost was Islam, which reached every corner of society, and was an immensely strong influence at both the individual and community levels. The role of families was also very strong, along with kinship units. In Pashtun areas the “Pashtunwali” cultural code remained, and provided strong behavioral norms and social frameworks.
These were tough people, physically resilient, often willing to use violence, and often courageous (a bravery it seems in part driven by social norms and expectations, but also perhaps by deep religious beliefs and the reality of short lifespans). Gender separation was often stark, particularly in rural areas, where women spend much of their time in family compounds. Rules governing women’s behavior were often strict, especially in rural areas, and could be harshly enforced.
A significant percentage of the population had been displaced internally or externally by wars since 1979, adding another stress on this society, and many had spent time in nearby refugee camps in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) or near Peshawar. As the Pakistani government closed the camps across from RC-East during this period, thousands of refugees cross the border, often on short notice. While the Government of Afghanistan (GOA) and Coalition would scramble to respond, extended families and tribal networks often absorb these populations.
The series of wars beginning in 1979 had, by 2004, exhausted much of the population in the border areas, which was probably bordering on collective post-traumatic stress disorder. This fatigue presented opportunities to both sides—whoever could provide stability and an end to the violence had a chance to win popular support. Security was most people’s highest priority—including protection from insurgents, thieves, militias, and enemy tribes, not to mention corrupt security forces. Economic prosperity—jobs and income—was a close second.
Ethnic Groups
The main ethnic groups in RC-East were Pashtuns, Tajiks, Hazaras, and Nuristanis, with some smaller groups including the Peshaei. Along the border areas, the Pashtuns were by far the largest group, with the Hazaras in the central highlands, the Nuristanis in the far northeastern part of the country and the Tajiks further north away from the border (see map). Some of these groups, particularly in the cities, were ethnically mixed, and often spoke more than one language. The Kuchis, a mostly Pashtun nomadic group that migrated between Pakistan and Afghanistan looking for pasture for their animals, often caused friction with the settled populations. Where the lands of these ethnic groups met – particularly where Hazara and Pashtun groups came together —there were often tensions.
Tribes remained strong in some areas, particularly the Pashtun areas in Khost, Paktika, Paktia and Nangarhar. There were a bewildering array of tribes and sub-tribes with often contentious complex relations between themselves. Many of these border tribes claim swaths of territory on both sides of the frontier, and move across at will. In others areas tribal influence had waned, due to historical, social or cultural factors, or had never been strong to begin with. The world of the border tribes was changing rapidly, as improved roads, communications, and increased government involvement came to the area. Clearly, understanding the people was vital to winning the counterinsurgency and to developing sustainable political and economic institutions.
Generalized Ethnic Divisions within Regional Command East and
Adjacent Pakistan
Afghans’ View of Coalition Forces
The border populace was generally receptive to Coalition forces during this time. Afghans,