Position, Navigation, and Timing Technologies in the 21st Century. Группа авторов

using...Figure 44.12 Schematic diagram of a pendulous accelerometer using the change...Figure 44.13 Schematic diagram of a pendulous accelerometer with a servo tha...Figure 44.14 Schematic diagram of a PIGA. The PIGA uses the torque of a gyro...Figure 44.15 A family tree for rotation sensing mechanizations commonly used...Figure 44.16 Schematic diagram of a single‐degree‐of‐freedom gyroscope. Cons...Figure 44.17 Schematic diagram of a two‐degree‐of‐freedom gyroscope. At oper...Figure 44.18 Larmor precession of an atom in an external magnetic field. The...Figure 44.19 Schematic diagram of an NMR gyroscope. A mixture of noble gas a...Figure 44.20 Schematic view of a vibrating string gyroscope that uses the de...Figure 44.21 Schematic view of a vibrating shell gyroscope. The position of ...Figure 44.22 Schematic view of light propagating in opposite directions arou...Figure 44.23 Schematic view of an IFOG. Light from the source, S, is coupled...Figure 44.24 Schematic view of a high‐performance IFOG using an integrated o...Figure 44.25 Schematic view of a RLG, where the frequency difference between...Figure 44.26 Schematic view of a passive ring resonator gyroscope that locks...Figure 44.27 Schematic diagram of an atomic interferometer. A cloud of atoms...Figure 44.28 Schematic diagram of a light pulse atom interferometer. The ato...Figure 44.29 Schematic diagram of a light pulse atom interferometer using du...

      12 Chapter 45Figure 45.1 Left: Plan view of a 3‐axis capacitive LIS3DH accelerometer made...Figure 45.2 Optical plan view of the MEMSIC 2‐axis thermal accelerometer. Th...Figure 45.3 Scanning electron microscope (SEM) tilt‐view image of an STMicro...Figure 45.4 Example of a vibratory ring MEMS silicon gyroscope with inductiv...Figure 45.5 Left: Finite element model showing the gyroscope operating conce...Figure 45.6 Examples of commercially available MEMS IMUs. Left: Consumer‐gra...

      13 Chapter 46aFigure 46.1 Position drift of inertial navigation that is caused by bias in ...Figure 46.2 Position performance of a naïve GNSS/INS integrated mechanizatio...Figure 46.3 Complementary estimation for GNSS/INS integration. Differences b...Figure 46.4 Main principle of inertial navigation. Acceleration is integrate...Figure 46.5 High‐level block diagram of strapdown INS mechanization. System ...Figure 46.6 Coning motion: the angular rate vector precesses around a certai...Figure 46.7 Example implementation of inertial navigation algorithm in MATLA...Figure 46.8 Example realization of the first‐order Gauss–Markov process. Its...Figure 46.9 Due to errors in gyro measurements, the body‐frame is computatio...Figure 46.10 Loosely coupled GNSS/INS mechanization. GNSS navigation solutio...Figure 46.11 Estimate of relative position between two GNSS antennas can be ...Figure 46.12 Test trajectory applied for the 2D simulation of a loosely coup...Figure 46.13 INS error estimation performance for the 2D simulation scenario...Figure 46.14 Two GNSS outage scenarios are implemented to illustrate the inf...Figure 46.15 GNSS/INS position performance for two outage scenarios. INS dri...Figure 46.16 Tightly coupled GNSS/INS implementation. GNSS measurements (suc...Figure 46.17 Satellite and receiver geometry involved in formulation of rang...Figure 46.18 Deeply integrated GNSS/INS implementation. Deep integration ext...Figure 46.19 Example implementation of deeply integrated GPS/INS system for ...Figure 46.20 Example implementation of deep GPS/INS integration that is cons...Figure 46.21 GNSS/inertial synchronization approach: GNSS and IMU measuremen...Figure 46.22 Example implementation of synchronization module for time stamp...Figure 46.23 Time‐synchronized processing of GNSS and inertial measurements....Figure 46.24 Measurement quality monitoring for detection and exclusion of o...Figure 46.25 Example test environments in San Francisco, California. Typical...Figure 46.26 Typical performance of GNSS position solution in downtown envir...Figure 46.27 Performance of loosely coupled GNSS/INS mechanization in urban ...Figure 46.28 Performance of tightly coupled GNSS/INS mechanization in urban ...Figure 46.29 Performance of tightly coupled GNSS/INS mechanization; consumer...Figure 46.30 Performance of tightly coupled GNSS/INS mechanization with cons...Figure 46.31 Position solution of multi‐sensor fusion mechanization that com...Figure 46.32 Second test example of multi‐sensor solution that fuses consume...Figure 46.33 Example test environment for demonstrating the capabilities of ...Figure 46.34 GPS‐only solution in dense forestry areas: very sparse position...Figure 46.35 Position solution of the deeply integrated GPS/INS implementati...Figure 46.36 Trajectory reconstruction results without measurement quality m...Figure 46.37 Performance of the tightly coupled GPS/INS implementation. Cont...

      14 Chapter 46bFigure 46.38 Segmented estimator with updates.Figure 46.39 From raw inertial instrument data to final navigation outputs....Figure 46.40 Measurement geometry over time.Figure 46.41 Carrier‐phase residuals of the next‐to‐last flight segment.

      15 Chapter 47Figure 47.1 The basic components of an AFR (clock) are the collection of ato...Figure 47.2 Illustration of the concepts of accuracy and stability. The plot...Figure 47.3a Energy level diagram of Rb showing the lowest energy quantum st...Figure 47.3b When a magnetic field is applied to ⁸⁷Rb atoms, the two hyperfi...Figure 47.3c Illustration of the optical absorption spectra of Rb on the res...Figure 47.4 Basic diagram of a lamp‐pumped Rb AFR, consisting of three Rb va...Figure 47.5 On top is an image of an? historic Rb AFR that was produced coll...Figure 47.6 Representative frequency instability of GPS Rb AFRs, Blocks I to...Figure 47.7 Representative diagram of Cs beam atomic frequency standard. Thi...Figure 47.8 Detected atom flux measured at the hot wire (often platinum) plu...Figure 47.9 Illustrative diagram of the design and internal structure of an ...Figure 47.10 Image of a passive hydrogen maser (PHM) used on GALILEO. ESA ph...Figure 47.11 Plot showing the expected frequency instability of some advance...Figure 47.12 Simplified diagram of the concept of a CSAC, here using the Cs ...Figure 47.13 On the left is an image of an early realization of a CSAC physi...

      16 Chapter 48Figure 48.1 Temporal variations amplitude versus frequency (Marshall [11])....Figure 48.2 Twenty‐five days of temporal variations recorded At Boulder, Col...Figure 48.3 Compensation of magnetometer data to remove aircraft effects (Re...Figure 48.4 Examples of three‐axis magnetic field measurements in three near...Figure 48.5 Typical example of magnetic field variation in a university hall...Figure 48.6 Likelihood function value as a function of position for example ...Figure 48.7 Position error from hallway magnetic field positioning test. Y‐a...Figure 48.8 Example set of likelihoods at a single epoch.Figure 48.9 Maps of magnetic field navigation test routes (Images from Googl...Figure 48.10 AFIT route test results.Figure 48.11 Neighborhood route test results.Figure 48.12 Large route test results.Figure 48.13 Power spectral density of temporal variation and crustal field....Figure 48.14 Difference Between the 2012 magnetic anomaly map and the 2015 m...Figure 48.15 2012 Magnetic anomaly map over Louisa, Virginia, and 2015 fligh...Figure 48.16 Difference between the expected measurements from interpolation...Figure 48.17 North and east error over 1 h segment of flight profile.Figure 48.18 Filter estimation of temporal variations.

      17 Chapter 49Figure 49.1 Example of a 2D point cloud from a Hokuyo UTM‐30LX laser range s...Figure 49.2 Example of a 3D point cloud from a Velodyne HDL‐64E multi‐apertu...Figure 49.3 Example of a 3D point cloud from a structured light 3D imager (O...Figure 49.4 Laser/inertial integration example using a complementary Kalman ...Figure 49.5 Line extraction example: the split‐and‐merge method.Figure 49.6 Split‐and‐merge line extraction results using SICK‐360 van test ...Figure 49.7 Calculation of the shortest point to the line for each point (So...Figure 49.8 Line extraction example with line segments and associated standa...Figure 49.9 Two‐dimensional (2D) feature‐based laser navigation using line f...Figure 49.10 Two‐dimensional (2D) feature‐based laser navigation using line ...Figure 49.11 Two‐dimensional (2D) feature‐based laser navigation using line ...Figure 49.12 Extraction of the two‐dimensional (2D) algorithm to three dimen...Figure 49.13 Feature‐based laser/inertial integration.Figure 49.14 Complementary Kalman filter (CKF) for inertial error estimation...Figure 49.15 Basic principle of feature‐based SLAM.Figure 49.16 Feature‐based EKF_SLAM algorithm.Figure 49.17 Feature‐based SLAM data association (Bailey [18]).Figure 49.18 EKF‐SLAM (yellow) versus GPS (blue).Figure 49.19 FastSLAM mechanization.Figure 49.20 Front‐end and back‐end processing for graph‐based SLAM methods....Figure 49.21 Example of a factor graph used for offline processing of data u...Figure 49.22 Example of using iterative closest point (ICP) on actual point ...Figure 49.23 Complementary Kalman filter (CKF) for inertial error estimation...Figure 49.24 Map lookup function (Vadlamani and Uijt de Haag [44]).Figure 49.25 Gradient‐based search method to find the lateral error offset (...Figure 49.26 Airborne laser‐scanner system (ALS)‐based terrain navigator usi...Figure 49.27 Dual ALS (DALS)‐based terrain navigator without