Besides, Switzerland has an extensive government support system through financial and tax incentives that encourage corporate activity for sustainability. Government-subsidized programs for encouraging innovation in the environmental field are given significant support so that companies can adopt advanced technologies and methods of material recycling. Such subsidies include companies that specialize in plastic recycling or firms that invest in ecological construction technologies.
The interplay of effective recycling infrastructure, a highly environmentally conscious populace, government support, and business enterprise thus turns Switzerland into a global example of how to transition towards a CE.
1.2.3. Germany
Germany, as the representative of the EU countries with developed economy, is among the forerunners of implementing CE principles. During the late 20th century, this very concept started to actively evolve due to the first legal laws aimed at waste minimization and efficient resource use. A key step in this process was the Packaging Waste Act of 1991, which required producers to take responsibility for the collection and recycling of packaging materials [40]. This approach formed the basis for the EPR principle. In 1996, the Closed Loop Waste Management and Disposal Act was passed, giving a legal form to the concept of the CE and setting priorities: avoidance of waste, re-use, recycling, and disposal as the very last option.
Today, Germany boasts probably one of the most demanding ecological regulatory systems in the world. The revised Closed Loop Waste Act, which started its implementation in 2012, set more stringent demands on sorting and recycling for all kinds of waste, organic and industrial alike. In 2019, the Packaging Act was passed, expanding producer obligations and setting minimum recycling standards, such as 63% for plastics in 2023. These initiatives are part of the National Sustainable Development Strategy, which is included in the EU’s CE Action Plan [41]. Starting in 2025, new rules for waste separation will be introduced in Germany. People who put foreign objects in organic waste containers will now be fined up to €2,500.
The CE covers almost all the most important sectors of the German economy. More than 67% of household waste is recycled in the waste recycling sector, which is one of the highest rates in the EU. Industrial enterprises, like BASF, introduce closed carbon cycle technologies, reprocessing by-products of production to obtain new products. In the last years, due to such actions, CO2 emissions have been decreasing (fig. 11).
In the energy sector, Germany is actively developing biogas plants that process organic waste. In 2023, RE sources accounted for 55% of the electric power produced in Germany, of which 8,4% came from biomass, including biogas. In the construction industry, more than 90% of construction waste is recycled or reused, and new building materials are designed with consideration for their subsequent recycling.
Figure 11. CO2 emissions by BASF, metric tons [42]
The automotive industry, particularly BMW, actively uses recycled materials such as aluminum and plastic in the production of new vehicles. Starting in 2025, the Neue Klasse models will feature plastic trim parts, 30% of the raw material for which will come from marine plastic waste [43]. The carbon footprint of these components will be approximately 25% lower than that of corresponding components made from conventional plastics. BMW also uses recycled fishing nets to make fabrics for ceiling panels and floor mats in the BMW i3, BMW iX, and other models. The BMW Group has set an overall goal to increase the share of secondary materials in thermoplastics used in new cars, from approximately 20% at present to an average of 40% by 2030.
Germany has achieved significant success in the development of the CE through a comprehensive approach that combines strict environmental laws, innovation, and a high level of environmental awareness among its population [44]. The country aims to achieve carbon neutrality by 2045, with intermediate targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions: a 65% reduction by 2030 and an 88% reduction by 2040 compared to 1990 levels. As mentioned, one of the most important aspects was the early legislative framework regarding Closed Loop Waste Management that established a waste management hierarchy, emphasizing prevention, recycling, and reuse. Germany is actively implementing technologies in sectors such as waste recycling, energy, and industry. High waste separation was able to occur with modern infrastructures such as recycling plants and waste separation systems. Innovation supports the effective re-creation of materials from waste, such as plastic wastes recycled for new material use and organic waste used for the production of biogas. Additionally, environmental education and public awareness encourage active citizen participation in implementing the principles of the CE, making Germany a leader in this field.
1.2.4. Netherlands
The Netherlands is considered one of the forerunners in the world regarding the CE due to its ambitious strategy and integration of sustainable principles into key sectors of the economy. In 2016, the country adopted the Circular Netherlands by 2050 program with the aim of full transition to a CE and excluding the use of primary fossil, metallurgical, and mineral resources [45]. A second, intermediate goal is to reduce the consumption of these resources by 50% by 2030. This strategy relies on close collaboration between the government, business, academia, and citizens, allowing for the development of inclusive and scalable solutions.
In the Netherlands, the National Program for CE 2023—2030 was adopted. It encompasses a broad area, including reduction in primary resources, material recycling, prolonging the useful life of products, and substitution of secondary and bio-based materials. One of the critical components of the program pertains to improving recycling processes to make use of resources efficiently, especially within priority sectors like consumer goods, building materials, plastics, and agriculture. The program also includes international cooperation to make the transition equitable, such as on environmental standards and improving labor conditions along the value chain [46]. It also sets out a package of incentivizing and regulatory measures for reaching the objectives on reducing CO₂ emissions and increasing the resilience of the Dutch economy. According to reports, a number of challenges are said to face the national CE program for 2023—2030, including limited budgetary resources (fig.12).
Figure 12. Financing of the CE in the Netherlands, thousand euros
Among the major drivers of CE development in the country is high population density and lack of natural resources-a factor that makes efficient material use vitally important. Waste recycling systems are actively being developed in the country, and among the priorities are organic, construction, and plastic waste. This has been made possible through a strictly regulated waste segregation system and the implementation of innovative recycling technologies [47]. For example, construction waste recycling allows the production of high-quality secondary materials, which are used in road construction and the housing sector.
The Netherlands is also at the forefront of plastic recycling. The country is part of the Plastic Pact NL initiative, under which the goal is to have 100% of the packaging made of recyclable plastic by 2025 [48]. Further, innovative projects like chemical recycling plants are making complicated types of plastics into raw materials for the manufacture of new materials. These technologies substantially reduce dependence on primary plastics and reduce the carbon footprint of the industry.
Agriculture also contributes importantly to the CE of the Netherlands. Recycling organic waste, like manure and agricultural residues, into biogas and compost, which are used as fuel and fertilizers, respectively. Furthermore, initiatives on vertical farming and aquaponics methods are underway, limiting the use of water and soil while generating a more sustainable food value chain.
Dutch industry