The concept of the CE in the USA is of growing importance in the context of sustainable development and rational use of resources. In recent years, there has been a marked intensification of efforts at both the federal and regional levels aimed at integrating CE principles across various sectors of the economy.
Within the USA, environmental concerns have remained one of the most critical domains of governmental policy and public interest over the past several decades. With the country ranking as the third-largest globally by both land area and population, the USA is also the world’s largest economy, with a gross domestic product of just under $29 trillion in 2024. This scale of economic activity exerts substantial pressure on natural resources and the environment (fig.5).
The evolution of the principles of CE first began in the USA as an increasing awareness of conserving natural resources and waste was evoked, largely inspired by the environmental movements of the 1960s and 1970s. In this age, societal concerns about industrialization’s environmental toll grew afresh, catalyzed by publications like Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring (1962), unveiling the devastating impact of chemical pollutants on ecosystems [14]. These developments fueled public demand for action, prompting the USA government to establish the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1970 and introduce foundational environmental regulations. While the CE concept was not yet fully articulated, these early efforts set the stage for key practices such as recycling and resource reuse, which later became pillars of circular economic systems [15].
Figure 5. GDP levels in various countries in 2023 and 2024 [13]
Initial steps toward the incorporation of CE principles in the USA began in the 1980s and 1990s. During this period, there was much progress with recycling technologies and integrated waste management legislation. Notably, California’s Integrated Waste Management Act of 1991 required municipalities to recycle at least 25% of their waste by 1995 and 50% by 2000 [16]. These efforts thus provided a foundation for the development of recycling infrastructure and the more general diffusion of material reuse practices. Similarly, the 1994 Packaging Act mandated federal rules on the recycling and disposal of packaging materials. It marked one of the key policy shifts toward creating closed-loop systems, considering the large contribution made by packaging waste.
Starting in the early 2000s, a rash of research and innovation consistent with a CE paradigm spread through the USA. Walter R. Stahel became a key pioneer in the field, and his calls to extend product lifetimes through a “performance economy” impacted American approaches to sustainable development. Around this time, organizations like the Ellen MacArthur Foundation supported the cradle-to-cradle concept, put together by Michael Braungart and William McDonough [17]. These frameworks soon found acceptance throughout the USA and inspired the adoption of novel business models and strategies for product design focused on resource circularity, sustainable material use, and waste minimization.
In the last decade, the CE has, among others, been enjoying great interest at both the governmental and corporate levels in the USA. In the year 2018, EPA issued a Strategic Plan for Sustainable Materials Management that placed at the core of the document a presentation of the principles of circular economics. It had aimed at fiscal years 2018—2022, trying to reduce environmental impacts and enhance economic efficiency through more rational resource use at the same time [18]. CE and efficient use of materials, according to this document, have been identified as fundamental items within the agency’s agenda; the main objective has to do with mitigating environmental risks while enhancing economic performance through the use of responsible consumption and resources. EPA’s strategy was focused on shifting from a linear consumption model to a closed-loop system, which would involve waste minimization, recycling, and incorporation of the reuse and conservation of resources into processes of production and consumption.
The plan outlined three main areas of focus: protection of health and the environment, forming partnerships with public and private organizations for environmental goals, and enforcement of compliance with legislative standards with increased transparency. These focus areas included concrete measures, such as reducing the use of landfills, improving air and water quality, enhancing recycling infrastructure, and increasing the share of secondary materials in use. In this way, accelerating the transition toward CE was underpinned by partnerships with government entities, local communities, and businesses in ways that helped spread practices of recycling and the adoption of new models for resource utilization in order to reduce environmental burdens.
According to the EPA’s report, by 2018, 74% of the established targets for air and water quality were achieved [19]. Of the 92 goals, 68 were fully met, while 15% were achieved at 75—99%. Problematic metrics in air quality and chemical management were identified as areas needing further improvement. The EPA successfully streamlined hazardous waste disposal permits, reducing the backlog by 18%, achieving 136 pending permits by mid-2018. This development lessened the administrative burden and added more transparency to waste movement and processing.
The plan particularly focused on packaging wastes, which form a big fraction of municipal solid wastes (MSW) in the USA. These included strategies aimed at reducing the quantity of packaging, and advocating for the recycling of packaging material to lighten the landfills and reduce costs of managing waste. Thus, in 2018, under the Superfund program of EPA, 102 sites were completely cleaned up and 1,368 properties made available for reuse due to environmental progress in cleanups, and rehabilitation of contaminated areas.
A new strategic plan, 2022—2026, has been adopted in 2022, laying down the key objectives of the USA EPA [20]. Among the major objectives of this plan, greenhouse gas emissions reduction occupies the frontline. The agency will issue final rules by September 2026 to cut emissions from light-duty vehicles, medium- and heavy-duty trucks, power plants, and the oil and gas industry. According to an estimate, the climate partnership programs included under the plan will yield an annual reduction of 545 million metric tons of CO₂ equivalent emissions. The plan also gives much emphasis to climate adaptation, where EPA commits to assisting at least 450 federal, state, and local governments in improving resiliency to the effects of climate change. Finally, the plan proposes to reduce HFC use by 10% from the baseline levels under the AIM Act by September 2023. Other key elements of the new strategic plan include incorporating principles of equity and fairness into environmental programs and actions, as well as enhancing partnerships with federal, local, and international stakeholders.
Most of the country’s territory is occupied by industrial and agricultural zones and densely populated urban agglomerations that produce huge volumes of waste and pollutant emissions. The rate of waste recycling is the most important indicator of environmental sustainability for a country. According to data [21] presented in the EPI, the 2024 recycling rate for the USA is 44 while Switzerland attained the highest EPI score of 100.The EPI metric for recycling reflects the percentage of waste processed and reintegrated into production cycles. It illustrates how efficiently a country manages its resources and incorporates circular principles into its economy. In 2022, the recycling rate in the USA was recorded at 14,8, while South Korea achieved the highest score of 67,1.
The 2024 fiscal year report from the USA EPA highlights substantial financial allocations aimed at advancing the CE and promoting sustainable resource management [22]. For instance, the total budget for the “Clean Water” program (State Revolving Fund, SRF) amounted to $6,4 billion. This funding includes both regular appropriations and allocations provided under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act. The program focuses on modernizing water supply systems and wastewater treatment facilities, which reduces environmental strain and expands access to clean water for the population. A significant portion of these funds is distributed as revolving loans, enabling states to finance new projects aimed at improving water infrastructure.
Approximately $1,4 billion was allocated to research activities assessing risks to human health and ecosystems. These funds support the development of regulatory standards, such