Research institutions like the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) are the most crucial to the development of CE in the USA. In 2023, MIT initiated a research program that focused on the development of new materials and technologies that would accelerate the process of adopting CE practices. Such scientific activities are creating a fertile ground for corporate and governmental initiatives and raising public awareness about the urgent need for sustainable development.
Superfund programs, aimed at restoring contaminated sites and facilitating their reclamation, received approximately $1,6 billion in funding. These resources are allocated to land decontamination, improving land quality, and preparing sites for reuse, aligning with key principles of the CE. Such investments enhance the availability of previously polluted sites for public and commercial purposes, reducing the need to develop new land areas.
Overall, these measures reflect a strong commitment to advancing the CE by supporting infrastructure projects, fostering scientific research, and rehabilitating environmentally vulnerable areas. The funding also underscores the integration of sustainability principles into federal resource management policies.
To date, California remains one of the leaders in sustainable development and the implementation of CE principles in the USA [23]. For instance, in 2022, the state passed Senate Bill 54 (SB 54), which mandates that all packaging within California must be recyclable or compostable by 2032 (fig.6).
Figure 6. Plan to increase the recycling rate of plastic packaging in California, %
The premise for adopting the law was a global study conducted in 2018 [24], which found that only 9% of plastic is actually recycled, while 91% remains waste on land and in oceans.
Various American companies have implemented the working principles of the CE, promoting efficient resource use and the minimization of environmental impact. Google, among other companies, has embraced this concept and implemented measures related to the minimization of waste, utilization of recycled materials, and enhancement of energy efficiency. In 2023, the company reached the following significant marks in its work related to environmental protection. Starting this year, all new products contained a minimum of 99% post-consumer recycled plastic in product packaging, which is an uptick from 96% in 2022 [25]. The company made 34% of materials used in its products, again from recycled sources, lower than 41% made during the last year due to a change in the product lineup.
One of the important goals for Google is “Zero Waste to Landfill”. In 2023, the company could implement this goal on 29% of its data center campuses, translating to 8 out of 28 global facilities. This represents significant efforts made by Google in terms of handling better waste management and reducing pressure on the environment.
Equally important, Google is also heavily investing in renewable energy (RE). In 2023, 64% of the company’s consumption of energy was from clean sources. Besides this, Google inked contracts for an additional 4 GW of RE capacity-a record in its green energy developments. These feats put into light how Google embeds sustainability principles in all of its operations and products to reduce its environmental footprint.
Another example of successfully implementing CE principles in the USA is the work of Procter & Gamble Co. (P&G). The company actively focuses on reducing environmental impact by optimizing packaging and minimizing the use of virgin resources. As part of its strategy, P&G bases its decisions on scientific data and comprehensive life cycle analyses of materials, enabling it to minimize the environmental footprint of its products. One of P&G’s primary goals is to ensure that 100% of its consumer packaging is either recyclable or reusable by 2030, with the company having already achieved a 78% recyclability rate by the end of 2023 [26]. Additionally, P&G aims to cut its use of virgin petroleum-based plastic in packaging by 50% by 2030, with a 13% reduction already achieved by 2023.
The company is also a strong supporter of Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) systems, which accelerate the transition to a CE and enhance waste recycling processes. Since 2020, P&G has consistently met its target of sending zero manufacturing waste to landfills (fig.7).
The company also participates in global initiatives, such as support for the UN treaty aimed at combating plastic pollution, as a manifestation of its commitment to global environmental objectives. These actions by P&G contribute to creating a closed-loop system of resource use, reducing environmental impact, and promoting the principles of sustainable development.
Figure 7. Qualified manufacturing waste to landfill (ZMWTL) sites
On the whole, in the USA, important steps have been taken regarding the promotion of the CE principles, mainly on the level of individual states and major corporations. However, such a model faces a number of challenges. First of all, there is an urgent need to modernize the recycling infrastructure, which still does not cover many parts of the country, especially rural and remote areas. Second, the absence of harmonized federal standards makes it very complicated to implement CE policies throughout the whole country. Third, the high-value segment of USA market products, such as packaging materials and electronics, needs advanced technologies for recycling, which can hardly allow the closed material loops to be established.
While these challenges are still at play, the outlook for the CE development in the USA remains promising. In 2023, the EPA reported that the recycling industry already supports over 680,000 jobs and contributes approximately $37,8 billion to the economy. This emphasizes the fact that the CE provides not only environmental but also major economic benefits. If current trends continue, the USA is well positioned to become one of the global leaders in CE practices that would let it meet the challenges of environmental and economic sustainability in the long term.
However, it is worth noting that a landmark event for the global community is the renewed decision of the USA to withdraw from the Paris Agreement on climate change, once again highlighting the instability of international environmental commitments by major powers. This has happened before: in 2017, the administration of Donald Trump notified the UN of its intention to leave the agreement, and the USA formally exited in 2020. However, in 2021, President Joe Biden rejoined the accord, reinstating the country’s commitment to reducing emissions. Now, in 2025, the USA has once again announced its intention to withdraw, notifying the UN that the exit will take effect in 2026. This move has raised serious concerns among world leaders and climate organizations, as it undermines collective efforts to combat global warming, weakens international climate policy, and sets a precedent for other countries, potentially making it more difficult to achieve the goal of limiting temperature rise to 1,5°C.
1.2. Developed countries of the EU
The development of the CE in EU countries depends on a combination of environmental, economic, and social factors. In the first place, transition to the CE is urged by the necessity of minimizing the negative impact of the linear economy on the environment. Among the challenges included are the depletion of natural resources, the volumes of increasing waste and greenhouse gas emissions, and degradation of ecosystems.
From an economic perspective, the CE reduces dependency on raw material imports, which is particularly critical for the EU because most of its resources are imported. In 2023, the European Commission adopted the Critical Raw Materials Act, intended to ensure the EU’s green and digital transition gets sustainable access to those resources [27]. It also points out that 90% of rare earth metals and 60% of lithium are processed in China, underlining the substantial dependence of Europe on that country’s imports. Recycling and reusing waste would reduce these risks but also enhance the strategic autonomy of Europe.
From a social point of view, the CE is perceived as a means to generate employment. The European Commission assumes that the adoption