89 89. The Jamaican sociologist, Fernando Henriques, coined this term, and it still resonates even to this day, reflected in the bizarre recent increase in the use of skin whitening cream even among reggae and dancehall stars. See his Family and Color in Jamaica, Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1953. On the sad matter of present-day skin whitening in the island see Rebekah Kebede, with Marlon James, 2017, ‘Why Black Women in a Predominately Black Culture are still Bleaching their Skin. Investigating deep-rooted ideals in Jamaica’, Marie Daire, https://www.marieclaire.com/beauty/a27678/skin-bleaching-epidemic-in-jamaica/
90 90. Matthew Lewis, 1999, Journal of a West Indian Proprietor, Oxford World Classic, Oxford University Press.
91 91. Ronald Finlay, 1975, ‘Slavery, Incentives, and Manumission: A Theoretical Model’, Journal of Political Economy Vol. 83, no. 5, pp. 923–34; Orlando Patterson, 1982/2018. Slavery and Social Death: A Comparative Study, Chapters 8–10.
92 92. Brooke N. Newman, 2018, A Dark Inheritance: Blood, Race, and Sex in Colonial Jamaica,Yale University Press.
93 93. Mavis Campbell, 1976, The Dynamics of Change in a Slave Society: A Sociopolitical History of the Free Coloreds of Jamaica, 1800–1865, Fairleigh Dickinson University Press; Arnold A. Sio, 1976, ‘Race, Colour, and Miscegenation: The Free Coloured of Jamaica and Barbados’, Caribbean Studies, Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 5–21; Gad J. Heuman, 1981, Between Black and White: Race, Politics, and the Free Coloreds in Jamaica, 1792–1865, Praeger; Daniel Livesay, 2018. Children of Uncertain Fortune: Mixed-Race Jamaicans in Britain and the Atlantic Family, 1733–1833, University of North Carolina Press; David B. Ryden, 2018, ‘Manumission in Late Eighteenth-Century Jamaica’, New West Indian Guide / Nieuwe West-Indische Gids, Vol. 92, Nos. 3–4, pp. 211–44; Erin Trahey, 2019, ‘Among Her Kinswomen: Legacies of Free Women of Color in Jamaica’, The William and Mary Quarterly, Vol. 76, No. 2, pp. 257–88; Wilmot Swithin, 2020, ‘Free Blacks, Free Coloureds and Freedmen in Jamaican Politics, 1830–1842’, Journal of Caribbean History, Vol. 54, No. 2, pp. 228–55.
94 94. Livesay, op. cit., 2018; Burnard, op. cit., 2020, ‘The Ambiguous Place of Free People in Jamaica’, Chapter 5.
95 95. Christer Petley, 2009, Slaveholders in Jamaica: Colonial Society and Culture during the Era of Abolition, Routledge; also, 2018, White Fury: A Jamaican Slaveholder and the Age of Revolution, Oxford University Press.
96 96. David Beck Ryden, 2009,West Indian Slavery and British Abolition, 1783–1807, Cambridge University Press.
97 97. S. D. Smit, 2006, Slavery, Family, and Gentry Capitalism in the British Atlantic: The World of the Lascelles, 1648–1834, Cambridge University Press.
98 98. Aaron Graham, 2018, ‘A Descent into Hellshire: Safety, Security and the End of Slavery in Jamaica, 1819–1820’, Atlantic Studies, Vol. 17, No. 2. See also his 2019 study: ‘Towns, Government, Legislation and the “Police” in Jamaica and the British Atlantic, 1770–1805’, Urban History,Vol. 47, No.1. Graham’s excellent series of papers on the island are building up to what promises to be an exciting dominion volume on the slave system during its last seven decades.
99 99. Eric Williams, 1944/2021, Capitalism and Slavery, University of North Carolina Press.
100 100. See Kenneth Morgan, 2000, Slavery, Atlantic Trade and the British Economy, 1660–1800. Also, H. Cateau and S. Carrington, eds, 2000, Capitalism and Slavery Fifty Years Later. Eric Eustace Williams – A Reassessment of the Man and His Work, Peter Lang Inc.
101 101. Franklin Knight, 2011, The Caribbean: The Genesis of a Fragmented Nationalism, Oxford University Press, Introduction.
102 102. Catherine Hall, 2002, Civilizing Subjects: Colony and Metropole in the English Imagination, 1830–1867, University of Chicago Press; and, with Nicholas Draper, Keith McClelland, Katie Donington and Rachel Lang, 2014, Legacies of British Slave-Ownership: Colonial Slavery and the Formation of Victorian Britain, Cambridge University Press.
103 103. Kathleen Wilson, 2003, The Island Race: Englishness, Empire and Gender in the Eighteenth Century, Routledge.
104 104. Susan D. Amussen, 2007, Caribbean Exchanges: Slavery and the Transformation of English Society, 1640–1700, University of North Carolina Press.
105 105. Katie Donington, 2020, The Bonds of Family: Slavery, Commerce and Culture in the British Atlantic World, Manchester University Press.
106 106. Hilary McD. Beckles, 2013, Britain’s Black Debt: Reparations for Caribbean Slavery and Native Genocide, University of the West Indies Press; Verene Shepherd, 2014, ‘Jamaica and the Debate over Reparation for Slavery: An Overview’, in Catherine Hall, Nicholas Draper and Keith McClelland, eds, Emancipation and the Remaking of the British Imperial World, Manchester University Press, Chapter 13, pp. 223–50.
107 107. Especially Elizabeth Donnan’s monumental four-volume editions of documents on the trade: Documents Illustrative of the History of the Slave Trade to America, Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1930–1935. The valuable, although now neglected works of Melville Herskovits, especially Dahomey: An Ancient West African Kingdom, 2 Vols., 1938 and The Myth of the Negro Past (1941) deserve continued recognition. For an excellent, balanced assessment of Herskovits and his works, see Jerry Gershenhorn, 2004, Melville J. Herskovits and the Racial Politics of Knowledge, University of Nebraska Press.
108 108. See the notes to Chapter 5.
109 109. Philip Curtin, 1972, The Atlantic Slave Trade: A Census, University of Wisconsin Press.
110 110. For a recent review of scholarship on the trade see Stephen D. Behrendt, ‘The Transatlantic Slave Trade’, The Oxford Handbook of Slavery in the Americas, edited by Mark M. Smith and Robert L. Paquette.The German historian, Michael Zeuske, in a comprehensive historiographical essay, has criticized what he considers an overemphasis on the hegemonic slaveries of antiquity, Islam and the Americas and appeals for scholarly engagement with the ‘smaller slaveries’ of the world, which is precisely what I attempted in Slavery and Social Death: A Comparative Study. See his ‘Historiography and Research Problems of Slavery and the Slave Trade in a Global-Historical Perspective’, International Review of Social History, Vol. 57, No. 1 (April 2012), pp. 87–111.
111 111. Curtin drew on Chapter 5 of The Sociology of Slavery, pp. 113–44, and on R. B. LePage and David De Camp, 1960, Jamaican Creole: An Historical Introduction to Jamaican Creole, St Martin’s Press.
112 112. Curtin, 1972, The Atlantic Slave Trade, pp. 130, 158–61. See in particular Table 46, p. 160. summarizing the chapter’s findings.
113 113. J. I. Inikori, 1976, ‘Measuring the Atlantic Slave Trade: An Assessment of Curtin and Anstey’, Journal of African History, Vol. 17, No. 2, April 1976, pp. 197–223.
114 114. I was a founding board member of the DuBois Institute but have long ceased being a formal member. See the history of the project here: https://www.slavevoyages.org/about/about#history/1/en/
115 115. See https://slavevoyages.org/voyage/about#methodology/coverage-of-the-slave-trade/1/en/
116 116. See Introductory Maps: https://slavevoyages.org/voyage/maps#introductory/
117 117. T. Parsons’ first explicit exploration of the problem in Hobbesian terms was in his foundational work, 1937, The Structure of Social Action, The Free Press, pp. 89–102. He elaborated on it in his 1951 work, The Social System, Harper and Row, pp. 36–45.
118 118. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan: Or the Matter, Forme and Power of a Commonwealth (1651) Oxford University Press (2012).
119 119. For one of many discussions on this issue see, D. Lockwood, 1956. ‘The Social System,’ British Journal of Sociology, Vol. 7, pp. 134–6. This was one of the works that influenced my own appraisal of the ‘problem’. See also, Desmond Ellis, 1971, ‘The Hobbesian Problem of Order: A Critical Appraisal of the Normative Solution’, American Sociological Review, Vol. 36, No. 4, pp. 692–703.
120 120. See for example, Orlando Patterson, ‘Culture