|
|
|
|
Nanosilica
|
Hollow carrier for drug delivery
|
|
|
|
Iron oxides
|
Biomedical and electronic applications
|
|
|
Semiconductors
|
Nanosilicon, gallium nitride, nanoflowers, nanocolumns
|
Photovoltaic and optoelectronic applications
|
|
|
Silicates, carbonates and nitrides
|
Clay, calcium carbonate, Silicon nitride
|
Filler in composites
|
|
|
Carbon nano‐objects
|
Graphene Carbon nanotubes Carbon nanofibers Fullerenes Carbon black
|
Biosensors, Scaffolds for bone growth, Scanning electron microscope tips, Antiaging cosmetics, contrasting agents for medical imaging, Heat and electricity conductor, antistatic agent
|
|
|
Polymers
|
Nanospheres Nanofibers Nanoporous membranes
|
Barrier membranes, membrane for fuel cells, antibacterial textiles, optical components, filtration membranes, reinforcement of structural composites
|
|
State
|
Uniformity
|
Isometric and inhomogeneous
|
—
|
|
Agglomeration
|
Agglomerates and dispersed
|
—
|
|
Origin
|
Natural
|
Natural nanostructures present in microorganisms like bacteria, viruses and algae; complex organisms like plants, insects, birds, animals, and humans
|
Nanomaterials in insects helps them to stay alive in adverse environmental conditions, Plant‐based nanomaterials acts as a source of cellular biocomposites, Nanomaterials in the human body help to perform normal physiological functions
|
|
Incidental
|
Natural nanoparticles produced by photochemical reactions, volcanic eruptions, and forest fires
|
—
|
|
|
Engineered
|
Metals, quantum dots, sunscreen pigments, nanocapsules
|
Cosmetic products, personal care products, nutraceuticals, health supplements, medical imaging
|
|
Applications in medicine
|
Solid‐drug nanoparticles
|
Nanocrystals Nanosuspensions
|
Delivery of immunosuppressant drug sirolimus (Rapamune®), antiemetic aprepitant (Emend®), antihyperlipidemic fenofibrate (Tricor®)
|
|
Polymer therapeutics
|
Polymer‐protein conjugates Polymer‐drug conjugates Polyplexes
|
Delivery of asparaginase in treatment of leukemia, non‐Hodgkin’s lymphoma, acute lymphoblastic leukemia (Oncaspar®) Delivery of glatiramer acetate for treating relapsing multiple sclerosis (Copaxone®) Delivery of methoxy polyethylene glycol‐epoetin beta in treatment of anemia I associated with chronic kidney disease (Mircera®)
|
|
Nanocarriers
|
Polymer nanoparticles (solid polymer nanoparticles and nanogels)
|
Delivery of paclitaxel as albumin polymer nanoparticle (Abraxane®)
|
|
Metal nanoparticles (gold nanoparticles, iron nanoparticles, and silver nanoparticles)
|
Gold, iron, and silver nanoparticles have diagnostic (biosensors), conductive (inks and composites) and optical (metal enhanced fluorescence and surface‐enhanced Raman scattering) applications (especially iron oxide nanoparticles are favored to obtain enhanced contrast in MRI imaging)
|
|
Solid lipid nanoparticles Nanostructured lipid carriers Nanoemulsions Self‐assembled structures (polymer micelle, liposome)
|
Delivery of estradiol hemihydrate as nanoemulsion in treatment of some symptoms of menopause (Estrasorb®) Delivery of doxorubicin as PEGylated liposomal injection (Doxil®)
|
|
|
Others (nanomaterial itself act as a therapeutic agent)
|
Dendrimers Virusomes Silver nanoparticles
|
VivaGel® antibacterial and antiviral dendrimer, Delivery of vaccine (influenza vaccine Inflex V®; Hepatitis vaccine Epaxal®), Antibacterial silver nanoparticles (wound dressing)
|
|
Potential toxicity level
|
Rigid and biopersistent
|
Fiber‐like nanoparticles: carbon nanotubes with and without asbestos like effects, fiber‐like metal oxides
|
—
|
|
|
Granular and biopersistent
|
Titanium dioxide, silica, zinc oxide, nanoclay, fullerenes, dendrimers, aluminum oxide
|
—
|
|
|
CMAR (carcinogenic, mutagenic, asthmagenic, reproductive toxin)
|
Nickel, cadmium containing quantum dots, arsenic, zinc chromate
|
—
|
a As per chemical composition, nanomaterials are also classified as organic (liposomes, micelle, polymeric nanoparticles, dendrimer); inorganic (quantum dot, mesoporous silica nanoparticle, gold nanoparticle, silver nanoparticles); carbon‐based (carbon nanotube, graphene, fullerene, graphene); composite‐based (polymer/ceramic nanocomposites, metal/metal nanocomposites, carbon/metal nanocomposites).
More than 30 years of research work has been conducted and a vast number of scientific research articles published about nanomedicine, but only a handful of nanoformulations have received marketing approval or been identified to enter clinical trials for different applications, including the diagnosis and treatment of multiple cancers and the treatment of infections and other noncancerous diseases (McGoron 2020). Thus, this represents the fundamentally high degree of regression of nanomedicine's path from laboratory to market due to the unique properties of nanomaterials, lack of safety knowledge, risk control methods, and their effective management. Consequently, any nanomedicine that enters the market must be of high quality, healthy, and efficient. Without activating any undesired reaction, in particular populations, NPs and other nanomaterials in the field of nanomedicine are supposed to exhibit an acceptable response. Unfortunately, the properties which make NPs appealing for the development of nanomedicine may also prove extremely harmful in cell interaction (Mukherjee et al. 2014). Nanotoxicology is an evolving toxicology specialty which accesses the toxicological properties of nanomaterials through various in vitro and in vivo tests using cell‐ or animal‐based models and provides evidence for the safety evaluation of this nanomaterial and its applications. The entire life cycle of nanomedicines, including the production, disposal, and environmental impact, should be considered when weighing the benefits and risks; for example, the estimation of various disposal pathways. A thorough biosafety evaluation of therapeutic nanomaterials will make a major contribution to risk control for the continuing growth of nanomedical technology, which is so urgently needed to ensure that they are produced carefully, fully exploited, and then disposed of safely. In deliberate partnership with nanomedicine, nanotoxicology will help advance the field of nanomedicine
