Like Chuang-tzu, Lieh-tzu believed that everything that is created flows in a cycle, from birth and growth to death and decay. The natural cycles are inevitable. “Going forth and returning, its successions are endless” (Lieh-tzu, in Graham 1990, 18).
EFFORT AND DESTINY
We act, and the fruits
Of our actions
Ripen, to
Become, to be
Borne on winds of destiny
—C. Alexander Simpkins
Two sets of forces are always acting upon our lives: human effort and destiny. Our own efforts bring about many things—professional development, mastery of a skill. Destiny, however, the more powerful force, can strike at any point to alter our path. The sage knows that it is futile to fight against destiny. Lieh-tzu advised his readers to ally themselves with destiny. Then they will live in tune with Tao and find themselves naturally developing their destiny to its fullest potential.
Life Is but a Dream
Things come into being from Tao, then differentiate into various combinations of yin and yang. One manifestation of yin and yang is between reality and illusion. Light always produces shadow. Sound produces echo. We are always in a relationship between concrete reality and the illusory, mystical realm of shadows, echoes, and dreams. Lieh-tzu explains through many stories that Chuang-tzu’s question—Am I a man dreaming I am a butterfly, or a butterfly dreaming I am a man—should be explored.
Lieh-tzu tells a story about a poor servant who was overworked by his master. Every night the servant fell into an exhausted sleep and dreamed that he was lord over a vast kingdom with all the wealth and leisure he desired. Despite his hard life, the servant was happy. When asked how he could possibly find joy in such an unpleasant life, he answered, “Even though my waking hours are toil and discomfort, I spend the sleeping half of my life in abundant joy!”
Meanwhile, the master of the household passed his waking hours plagued by worries about his household and the distribution of his wealth. At night he, too, fell into an exhausted sleep, but he dreamed he was a slave, driven to toil at hard labor. A friend advised him that his negative dreams were destiny’s balancing for his cruel treatment of his servant. Recognizing the truth in these words, the master lightened his servant’s load and eased his personal worries. His dreams and waking hours became more comfortable and fulfilling.
Taoist sages often guided people toward more fulfilling and healthier lives through dreams and illusion. Lieh-tzu told a story of how the Yellow Emperor became great. This mythical emperor was believed to have reigned wisely over China thousands of years before Christ. According to the story, his empire was not always happy and prosperous. For many years the kingdom experienced difficulties, and no matter what he did, nothing improved. One night he dreamt that he traveled to a particular kingdom that functioned perfectly without a leader. The Yellow Emperor realized when he woke up that he needed to alter his ruling methods. He stopped interfering and fostered his people’s development. From then on, his kingdom thrived.
The Taoist sages were equally comfortable in the dream state as in the waking state. In traditional legends, they gained the freedom to perform impossible feats, such as walking through walls and flying through the air, by embracing and identifying with the magical, illusory essence. Many of the miraculous actions that were attributed to Taoist immortals can be understood by accepting the importance of the unconscious, dreaming mind.
YANG CHU
Yang Chu is another important early Taoist sage. Yang Chu’s values and concepts are referred to consistently by other philosophers. Some scholars believe he lived early, others place him later. Only a few fragmentary references remain, unlike the works of Lao-tzu, Chuang-tzu, and Lieh-tzu. The Book of Lieh-tzu has a chapter—“Yang Chu”—in which Yang Chu’s teachings are described through various narrative accounts. Some translators dispute the authenticity of this chapter and leave it out of the Book of Lieh-tzu (for example, Giles 1959). The renowned 20th century scholar-historian of Chinese philosophy Wing-tsit Chan does not even consider Yang Chu a true Taoist, but most scholars do. Later Taoism followed one or the other view. Yang Chu, however, is referred to by Lieh-tzu throughout his writings, illustrating Taoist responses to situations that could epitomize the Way.
Yang Chu’s principles are clear. He encourages his students to live freely, spontaneously, without conscious interference—according to Tao. This may be practiced by a highly achieving member of the privileged class or by an underachieving vagabond. When asked what was the correct course for life, Yang Chu answered:
It is to be found in enjoying life, in freeing ourselves from care. Hence, those who are good at enjoying life are not poor, and those who are good at freeing themselves from care do not become rich. (Graham 1990, 141)
No principle or rule can be given to guide behavior: Every rule or principle is one-sided and faulty. Tao is the only possible guide, before rules and words, at peace, the supreme rule. Yang Chu represented freedom from rules, freedom to be spontaneous, to preserve life, to follow impulse and satisfy yourself, rather than live according to sober rules. In permitting self-expression, Yang Chu believed, life is fulfilled.
Yang Chu is sometimes derogated as a hedonist based on a particular passage in the Yang Chu chapter. In this passage Yang Chu is asked if he could help the whole world by sacrificing one hair on his head, would he do it? Yang Chu’s answer was no, because he believed that valuing life should come before all other concerns. If life is cultivated, “tending life” (Graham 1990, 143) as he called it, then all else would fall into place as it should.
The Neo-Taoists followed Yang Chu’s direction, as exemplified by the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove, who allowed their impulses free rein (see Chapter 5).
CHAPTER 5
Neo-Taoists: Feelings and Thoughts Evolve
But when one wishes to enjoy himself in the fullest and freest way, he must first
have before him a view like that of the wide sea or the expanse of the air, in
order that his mind may be free from restraint, and that it may respond in
the fitting way to everything coming before it:—it is only what is
Great that can enter into this enjoyment.
—Lin Hsi-kung, in Legge 1962, 273
The Neo-Taoists were a group of intellectuals living from A.D. 220 to 420, during a period when philosophy was dominated by Confucianism. The Neo-Taoists turned back to the classic Taoists, Lao-tzu and Chuang-tzu along with the I Ching, reinterpreting the original Taoist themes and blending them with Confucianism. Neo-Taoism was also affected by Buddhism, which was spreading rapidly throughout China. Zen Buddhism, not to be founded for another hundred years, would also be influenced by Neo-Taoist principles.
Bamboo Grove, Sun To-tsz, Chinese, 1912 – 1975
The Neo-Taoists tended to be idealistic youths, many of them scholars. They engaged in what they called “Pure Conversation,” or ch’ing t’an. They tried to express themselves as fully authentic and sensitive individuals. They considered each conversation a sublime meeting of souls. Some historians have compared their ideals to the Beats of the 1950s, with a similar commitment to being themselves and freely expressing their inner nature. These young seekers searched for ultimate reality, true understanding in happy dialogues, standing apart from what they considered the corrupting influence of striving for personal gain.
SEVEN WORTHIES OF THE BAMBOO GROVE
One famous group of Neo-Taoists was known as the Seven Worthies of the Bamboo Grove. They met in a grove of bamboo to discuss metaphysics, read poetry, often drinking heavily, and behaving whimsically. Their way