The Tao Te Ching (Classic of the Way and Its Virtue) is divided into two parts, one on Tao, the mysterious Oneness that guides everyone and everything, and the other on Te, the power that is achieved by following Tao, totaling eighty-two chapters. The Tao Te Ching points to the Taoist Way and shows how following it will lead to a fulfilling life. Lao-tzu chose to express the Tao through ambiguous, poetic verse that could awaken the intuition of Tao in his readers. He did not presume to communicate its concepts through clearly defined words, for words hide the Tao. Inner essences, to Lao-tzu, are neither communicated nor reflected in words. But then, perhaps that is best; when it is hidden, it is revealed. Communication is more than words.
LAO -TZU ’S CONCEPTS
Lao-tzu’s Tao Te Ching expresses concepts that interrelate systematically to give meaning and a basis for understanding. Forces create one another through chain reactions initiated by the energies of opposites. Events in the real world are the result of these forces. Even as a pattern comes into being, it vanishes. Being and nonbeing are only aspects of each other, mutually caused.
Tao is bottomless yet empty, the heart of things, of life. Immortality is found in the emptiness. From the emptiness springs usefulness. The empty space within a cup is what makes a cup useful, for without any empty space within, a cup cannot be filled.
Tao is the source, older than nature. Nature is rooted in Tao. Everything that we know in the world comes from Tao, expressed as yin and yang. Thus, anything we do will invariably create its own opposite. To succeed in life according to Lao-tzu, we should step back and permit this balancing to take place. The situations of life seem to be one way, but they quickly assert their dual nature. The sage encourages contentment by letting go of excess desires. Simplicity leads to freedom from desire.
Wisdom lies in not contending. Sensitive to the inner nature of self and other, Lao-tzu’s Way leads through mystery, by returning to the core of life. When you let be, circumstances stop being a problem. They go through their cycle. Allow matters to take their natural course, and the struggle of resistance lessens. Everything is then taken care of by its own patterns of activation and rest. Yin and yang represent the natural polarity that inevitably arises. By encouraging the natural, the sage permits Tao to become manifest. Thus, wisdom is found in silence, in quiet, in letting be.
CHAPTER 3
Chuang-tzu: Tales of Tao
Is not he who preserves the body and gives the fullest development
to the life, who establishes the attributes of the Tao and
clearly displays It, possessed of kingly qualities?
—Chuang-tzu, in Legge 1962, 311
Chuang-tzu (369–286 B.C.) stands with Lao-tzu as one of the most well-known and prolific founders of Taoism. His works, known as The Chuang-tzu, elucidate and illustrate Taoist concepts through colorful stories. Chuang-tzu’s writings deeply inspired Chinese philosophical, medical, and aesthetic theory in general and tai chi chuan and Zen Buddhism in particular. Zen teachers use his concepts and metaphors to convey principles that parallel those of Zen.
Chuang-tzu’s real name was Chuang Chou. Tzu means master and is a title of respect, and thus he is best known as Chuang-tzu, Master Chuang. Little is known about his personal life outside of his writings and a short biography, compiled by the historian Ssu-ma Ch’ien. Chuang-tzu grew up and lived in the state of Meng, part of the kingdom of Wei, where Lao-tzu spent most of his life. He was a contemporary of the famous Confucian scholar, Mencius, who wrote, “The words of Chuang-tzu and Mo-tzu fill the world” (Mencius, in Legge 1985, 9).
Chuang-tzu was well versed in the prominent philosophies of his day, along with the classics, but he made his preference for Taoism very clear. Unlike other Taoist writers, Chuang-tzu’s work takes issue with all other philosophies, especially Confucianism. He wrote numerous stories in which Taoist sages convince philosophers from other schools of Taoism’s wisdom. One of his favorite scenarios is in the form of dialogues between Confucius and Lao-tzu. Confucius, the younger man, questions Lao-tzu as if he were addressing a wise sage. In the end, Confucius is convinced that Taoism is in harmony with a profound truth that can enhance his Confucianist beliefs.
In a typical encounter, Confucius went to Lao-tzu and said, “I have read the Six Classics and consider myself an expert. Yet none of the seventy-two rulers whom I advise have ever put my ideas into practice! What am I doing wrong?”
Lao-tzu answered, “You may have read the Six Classics, but keep in mind that these are only footprints, not the shoes themselves. Look at nature. Each animal reproduces according to its nature. Some are live bearers, others lay eggs, to give you a few examples. Every species has its own nature and that nature cannot be altered! The Tao cannot be stopped. When you have the Tao there isn’t anything that you can’t do, but if you don’t have it, you can’t do anything!”
Confucius spent the next three months alone in his house, meditating on Lao-tzu’s words. When he returned to visit the Master, he told him, “I have it now! I understand that each animal reproduces in its own unique way in accordance with its own nature. I have my own part in the harmony. When I did not teach the rulers in harmony with the natural way, how could I expect to change them?”
Lao-tzu replied, “Now you have got it!” (Paraphrased from Chuang-tzu, Chapter 15, in Legge, 1962.) Thus, Lao-tzu helped Confucius learn to guide his actions by the hidden essence, not by external knowledge.
THE IMPORTANCE OF INNER FREEDOM
Chuang-tzu lived his philosophy, consistent with his principles. He was protective of his time and freedom and therefore chose a simple governmental job that left him plenty of time for fishing and philosophy. He had a small number of disciples who spent time with him in philosophical discussions, and he never let any of his professional endeavors compromise his self-determination.
One of the most famous stories about Chuang-tzu shows how much he valued life and freedom. King Wei of Chu heard about Chuang-tzu’s ability to express profound concepts with clarity and wit. One day the king sent messengers laden with gifts to invite Chuang-tzu to his court and offer him the position of prime minister. The messengers found Chuang-tzu quietly fishing. In a proud voice, the messenger said, “You have been honored by our king. He extends to you an invitation to become his minister.”
Chuang-tzu continued to fish. Then he smiled and said thoughtfully, “I am honored that the king would like to hire me for such an esteemed position as prime minister. But before I give you my answer, let me ask you a question. I have heard that the prince of Chu keeps a sacred tortoise who lived three thousand years carefully enclosed in a chest on the altar. Now I ask you, would that tortoise rather be dead and have his remains viewed and revered in a museum, or do you think he would prefer to be alive and splashing in the mud?”
The messengers could not help but answer, “Of course, the tortoise would rather be alive, playing in the mud.”
Chuang-tzu answered, “Then leave me now. I would rather be free to splash in the mud!” Chuang-tzu believed that people will live happy and satisfying lives if they are free to develop. He thought that each individual must be allowed to journey unhindered through the cycles of life.
RELATIVE KNOWLEDGE VS. THE ABSOLUTE WISDOM OF TAO
When the distinctions of true and false appeared, then Tao lost its wholeness. And when Tao lost its wholeness, individual bias began.
—Yutang 1948, 44
Chuang-tzu felt that people spent too much time disputing back and forth about every aspect of living. Too much talking takes people away from the Tao. “Words are [like] waves acted on by the wind,” he said, “the real point of the matters is lost” (Legge 1962, 214). Chuang-tzu lived during an unstable period in Chinese history, when people were continually disputing politics and philosophy. He believed that all of these arguments were relative. People argue because they have lost touch with the unity underlying the apparent distinctions: Tao precedes any differences.