Throughout his writings, Chuang-tzu illustrated many of his points with examples from nature. He believed that the Way of nature is the Way of Tao. When nature is encouraged to thrive and permitted to follow its path without interference, it will develop just as it should. Each is uniquely suited to its own lifeworld. People should not try to impose their own design. Instead, they should find the inner pattern, and follow it. Artists should paint or draw spontaneously from nature, and creative inspiration will follow. Sometimes the inner pattern can only be known in terms of what it is not. Rejection of education and culturally learned limitations may be the necessary first step. The glow of true nature within can brighten the darkness of the unknown. The leap of intuition is more than a first step; it actually guides us on our journey. Reason, paradoxically, leads us astray.
Chuang-tzu explained with an example about horses. Horses’ hoofs allow them to travel over frost and snow and hair on their bodies to withstand wind and cold. It is part of their nature to eat grass, drink water, and run through the countryside. Human beings came along and altered this. They trimmed the horses’ mane, shoed their hoofs, and placed yokes around their necks. Under such externally imposed patterns, horses are restricted to a narrow path and cannot thrive. These human actions disrupt the natural order of things. Thus, Chuang-tzu encouraged his students not to seek to be useful, lest they become unknowingly enchained while losing touch with their spontaneous inner nature. Uselessness has its use. Set yourself free, Chuang-tzu advised.
RETURN TO THE PRIMITIVE
Let all of earth’s creatures, including people, live in accordance with their nature, and everyone will prosper. All are part of the Tao, expressing Tao by their own individual way of living. Chuang-tzu believed that each person has his or her own gifts and individual talents to express. When people follow their path, nature shows them the Way. They cannot fail. As problems arise, solutions emerge. Return to your origins in the primitive for wisdom. Problems are only apparent, arising from mistaking relative existence for absolute Tao.
In a famous story recounted by Chuang-tzu, Prince Yuan of Sung was seeking a painter. He asked all applicants to come to the palace at a certain time of day. All arrived, neat and punctual, at the appointed time except for one man, who wandered in dressed casually, quite late. The palace guards turned the strange, uncouth artist away, and he returned to his lodgings. The prince, however, became curious and wanted to see what the man could do. He sent some messengers to the artist’s room. When they arrived and asked to see the artist, he removed all his clothes and squatted down in a corner of the room. The messengers returned to the prince and described the strange behavior. “Bring him to me!” the prince said. “He is a true painter.” This partakes of the essence of Taoist art: naked, primitive, spontaneous, without concern for decoration through outer appearance or garments. Through art, the artist expresses his individual chi, the inner life force.
How, then, do we learn to follow our own true nature? Chuang-tzu’s answer is reminiscent of Buddhism in that the best technique to find Tao is through meditation, through learning to be empty of thoughts and desires. But Taoism interprets this a little differently from Buddhism: Practice self-forgetfulness. By self-abandonment to the realm of the unknown, the inner pattern will emerge. By acting spontaneously in synchrony with inner patterns, correct conduct is found. Then you can live unhindered by anything external. Return to the source of your life, the foundation in the wordless, unfathomable, unknowable Tao, and you will discover your true nature.
THE IMPORTANCE OF DREAMS
Chuang-tzu stretches the limits of “unknowing” to question our very certainty about consciousness. How do we know if we are truly awake? Chuang-tzu dreamt he was a butterfly, fluttering about happily in nature. He knew only that world of experience. The dream seemed real. When he awoke, he remembered his dream and knew he was Chuang-tzu. Then he wondered was he Chuang-tzu awake, remembering his dream of being a butterfly, or was he actually only a butterfly, asleep, dreaming he was a man, awake? Are we asleep or awake?
For Chuang-tzu, the unconscious dream state could not be distinguished from the waking, conscious state of mind. Tao can be found anywhere, at any time. But perhaps through dreams we are less impeded by conscious limits. These ideas were developed by Lieh-tzu (see Chapter 4) and can be put to use to help foster self-discovery (see Chapter 17).
FINAL YEARS
When Chuang-tzu was old and knew he was soon going to die, his disciples offered to give him a large, impressive funeral to show their great respect and love for him. Chuang-tzu protested and said, “I shall have heaven and earth for my coffin, the sun and moon for my two round symbols of jade, and the stars and constellations as my jewels. Isn’t that more than anyone could possibly want?”
The disciples responded, “But we are afraid that the crows will eat you, Master.”
Chuang-tzu smiled at them benevolently and said, “Above, the crows will eat me. Below, the moles and ants will eat me. To give to these and take from those would only show your one-sidedness. All are equal under the Tao.” These were the last words of Chuang-tzu, a man who wholeheartedly devoted his entire life to the Taoist Way.
CHAPTER 4
Lieh-tzu and Yang Chu:
Traveling the Path
The Master Lieh-tzu said:“The virtue of Heaven and Earth, the powers of the Sage, and the uses of the myriad things in Creation, are not perfect in every direction. It is Heaven’s function to produce life and to spread a canopy over it. It is Earth’s function to form material bodies and to support them. It is the Sage’s function to teach others and to influence them for good.”
—Giles 1959, 19
Lieh-tzu was a Taoist whose writings expressed the fundamentals of Taoism as a guide to action and for inspiration. The Book of Lieh-tzu helped add to the foundation of classical Taoist literature that breathes life into Taoist philosophy. Some of the stories in the Book of Lieh-tzu overlap with Chuangtzu’s accounts. These stories are part of Taoism’s traditional teachings. Lieh-tzu reinterpreted other Chinese philosophies in Taoist terms, finding principles of the Tao in all things, unifying later thinkers with the Taoists.
Lieh-tzu’s given name was Lieh Yu-K’ou (or K’an). He lived in the state of Cheng, and eventually moved to Wei. His teacher was Hu-tzu (Hu Ch’iu Lin). Lieh-tzu was referred to by Mencius, Chuang-tzu and others, showing that he was well-known around the third century B.C.
Lieh-tzu’s authenticity has been disputed at different times through history, but many modern scholars believe he did exist. It is uncertain whether Lieh-tzu personally authored the Book of Lieh-tzu. In keeping with early Chinese tradition, his writings were probably gathered later by his disciples. The book that is ascribed to Lieh-tzu is likely a compilation from more than one author rendering Lieh-tzu’s thoughts. Thus, the ideas were from an early historical period, probably around 398 B.C., but were compiled later.
As further support for the theory that Lieh-tzu’s book may have been written later, the work makes peace and comes to terms with other theories. Confucius is treated respectfully as is Mo-tzu, embraced as expressing Tao. The I Ching is also reinterpreted within Taoism’s concepts. This trend toward unification developed even further, and by the time of the Neo-Taoists (A.D. 220–420), Confucius was lauded as the greatest of all sages. The Book of Lieh-tzu helped bridge the gap between Taoism and other philosophies.
LIEH -TZU ’S IDEAS
Like Lao-tzu and Chuang-tzu, Lieh-tzu believed in the intuitive attunement to Tao—wordless, still,