In their 1959 book, Art Combs and Donald Snygg asserted in their theory of motivation that “the basic need of everyone is to preserve and enhance the phenomenal self,” or one’s view of him- or herself. Expanding on their theory, Carl Rogers’ work in the ‘70s emphasized the human condition as being in a constant process of becoming. And more recently, Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory postulates that social behavior can be learned by observing others. The contributions of these and other scholars and researchers continue to enrich our understanding of the power of perception in human affairs.
The perceptual tradition stands in contrast to other approaches that seek to understand human behavior by depicting it as basically a complex bundle of stimuli and responses, the product of a host of unconscious urges, or the result of genetic predispositions. In the perceptual tradition, primary importance is given to how people see themselves, others, and the world. Because of this emphasis on understanding people as they normally see things, the perceptual tradition seems well-suited as a cornerstone for Invitational Leadership.
Three assumptions of the perceptual tradition have particular meaning for Invitational Leadership: behavior is determined by perceptions, perceptions are learned, and perceptions can be reflected upon and modified.
Behavior Is Determined By Perceptions
The perceptual tradition seeks to explain why people do the things they do by postulating that human behavior is determined by, and pertinent to, the experience of the person at the moment of acting. In other words, each individual behaves according to how the world appears at that instant. From this vantage point there is no such thing as illogical behavior — each person is behaving in the way that makes the most sense to him or her at a particular moment. What may seem from an external point of view as counter-productive and even self-destructive is only a function of what the world looks like from the viewpoint of the perceiving person at that moment of action.
When Richard Nixon proclaimed at a news conference, “I am not a crook,” and Sally Field shouted at the Academy Awards, “You like me, you really like me!” they received heavy ridicule from the press. Yet, at the moment of action, both were best stating their feelings from a most visceral and momentary place. No matter how strange or counter-productive the behavior of another person may appear, from that person’s perception at the moment of action, the behavior is seen as preferable to other actions he or she might take. We perceive what is relevant to our purposes and make our choices accordingly.
Fortunately, each person’s perceptual field can be continually enriched, expanded, and modified. This optimistic belief provides something to continually appreciate and reach for; it provides leaders with a jumping-off point for working collaboratively to extend the human experience, allowing them to enroll others in a shared, mutually inspiring vision of the future.
Perceptions Are Learned
Through a myriad of encounters with the world, particularly those with significant others, we develop certain fundamental perceptions that serve as organizing filters for making sense of the world. Without such a filtering system, we would be relentlessly bombarded by unrelated stimuli. Thus, perceptions serve as a reference point for behavior. Invitational Leadership is based on an understanding of, and respect for, peoples’ perceptual worlds. These perceptual worlds are not to be taken lightly, for they provide insights into human behavior.
Our perceptual worlds are formed in three general ways. The first is through a traumatic or extremely emotional event. A marriage, the joyous arrival of a baby, career successes or failures, an illness, retirement, or the loss of a loved one can have such impact that our perceptual world is forever changed. Imagine the emotional response spurred by a physician saying: “Your heart is not as strong as we would like it to be” or “I’m afraid your tests came back positive.” Just imagine receiving a registered letter informing you that you have won thirty million dollars. Such information can turn our perceptual world upside down.
The second way that perceptions change is through a professional helping relationship, such as spiritual guidance, medical treatment, or professional counseling. We have all witnessed individuals who, through a religious conversion, medical or dental treatment, or professional counseling seem to change their perceptions of themselves, others, and the world. Psychotherapy can be a tremendous help for some individuals by assisting them to re-evaluate and reorganize their perceptual worlds.
The third, and by far the greatest influence on perceptions, takes place with repeated, everyday experiences and consistent events. Research has demonstrated that in business, workers who are consistently encouraged to participate in decision-making processes, or who are repeatedly excluded from such actions, will eventually see themselves as either valued participants or mindless drones. Everything that happens to us, good or bad, big or small, decent or indecent, has a life-long influence on the ways we perceive ourselves, others, and the world.
One further characteristic of our perceptual world is that it is a life-long process of learning. What we choose to perceive is determined by past experiences as mediated by present purposes and future expectations. Of all contemporary theories and models of leadership, none depends more on individual perceptions than does Invitational Leadership. Because perceptions are learned, they offer infinite capacity for positive change and the realization of human potential.
Perceptions Can Be Reflected Upon
The ability to examine and monitor our perceptions is essential to Invitational Leadership. Being aware of past and present perceptions and being able to imagine future possibilities permits the development of a deeper level of understanding of self, others, and the world. As Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, former head the University of Chicago’s Department of Psychology pointed out, reflection can lead a person to develop a more differentiated and integrated self; that is, a personality with many creatively harmonized interests..
Reflection also provides optimism because there is no inevitable future as long as we have the power to examine our lives. Although we cannot change the past, we can change our perceptions of previous events and consequently open more possibilities for the future. Such introspection goes beyond “I feel”; it is also “I think,” “I know,” “I reflect,” “I monitor,” and “I imagine.” At this point, real change becomes possible.
So far, we have emphasized that people behave according to how they see things. We explained that these perceptions are learned and can be reflected upon. Now we come to that paramount perception of personal existence: the self-concept.
Self-Concept
The concept of self has dominated the thinking of American scholars for many decades. In their review of the literature regarding self, social psychologists Banaji and Prentice reported finding more than 5,000 books, monographs, and articles on the subject. Obviously, our overview of self-concept will be restricted to its relationship to Invitational Leadership.
Of all perceptions, none seems to affect our search for personal significance and identity more than our self-concept — our awareness of our own personal existence and how we fit into the world. In our own research we have also concluded, as other theorists above, that the maintenance, protection, and enhancement of the perceived self is the basic motive behind all human behavior. Use of this assumption, organized into what is generally known as self-concept theory, helps to clarify and integrate seemingly unrelated aspects of human behavior. For example, individuals who see themselves as leaders are likely to respond by providing direction in difficult situations, just as soldiers who see themselves as defeated are likely to run from battle. The dynamics are the same, even if the resulting behaviors are sharply different.
One of the most interesting aspects of self-concept is that it has an innate integrity. If a new idea is congruent with beliefs already present in the self-concept, it is easily assimilated. If the new conception has no relevance, it is ignored; and if it is in opposition with other beliefs already present, it is immediately rejected. This organized self is worth considering more closely.