Focusing on organized crime
Despite what you see on TV, organized crime is much more than the Italian mob. In fact, the mafia is really only a very small part of the organized crime threat in the United States today. Organized crime refers to the groups of individuals who organize themselves in a hierarchical structure, usually for the purpose of engaging in the business of crime. These groups are set up in such a way that even when police arrest one or two members, the organization continues to operate. This structure is what makes fighting organized crime so difficult.
Organized crime groups are traditionally set up along ethnic lines, in large part, because members of the same ethnic group are more likely to know and trust one another. (However, a group called the United Nations gang, known for its ethnic diversity, was taken down in May 2009 for a large-scale drug-smuggling operation between Canada and the United States.)
Some common organized crime groups include the following:
Motorcycle gangs
Drug-smuggling operations
Prison gangs
Street gangs
White-supremacist organizations
These groups usually gravitate toward the types of criminal activities that provide the most income. Obviously, much of this activity includes illegal drugs. But it also includes tobacco smuggling, trafficking in counterfeit goods, and Internet fraud. Plus, you can’t forget the more traditional, localized organized crime activities, such as extortion, loan sharking, and robbery. And some groups, like white-supremacist criminal organizations, aren’t as interested in making money; they’re actually closer to being terrorist organizations. In Chapter 8, I go into much greater detail about the organized crime threat and how law enforcement is dealing with it.
Spotlighting terrorism
Throughout the world, and here in the United States, organized groups are using violence and the threat of violence to achieve political and social goals. These groups are called terrorists, and, today, criminal justice professionals are on the front lines in the fight against terrorism. Most known terrorist plots in the United States have been first identified or foiled by local police. As a result, it’s standard practice for cops throughout the country to be trained in identifying signs of terrorist activity.
Terrorism experts generally categorize the terrorist threat into two groups: right-wing and left-wing. But, in reality, hundreds of international groups have many different agendas, and numerous domestic terrorist groups tout principles ranging from animal rights to white supremacy, that do not fit on a political spectrum.
While law enforcement tends to investigate terrorists using the same methods used to attack organized crime, a significant threat continues to be the “lone wolf” actor, who goes at it alone. Omar Maten killed 49 people and wounded 50 more when he entered an Orlando nightclub in 2016 and, in the name of the Islamic State, unloaded on the guests with two semi-automatic weapons. Such lone wolf attacks are very challenging to detect because the attackers don’t communicate their plans to accomplices.
In Chapter 10, I discuss the major terrorist threats that the United States faces today.
Figuring Out What Makes Someone Commit a Crime
One significant branch of criminology focuses on determining the causes of crime. Why do some people become life-long criminals while others become productive members of society? If criminologists — or anyone for that matter — can answer this question, maybe they can figure out some ways to prevent crime.
The following sections just skim the surface of the major theories criminologists have developed for why people commit crime. For a much more detailed discussion of the various causes of crime, check out Chapters 12 through 15.
Making a rational decision
Underlying society’s current response to crime is the rational choice theory, which says that people generally make rational decisions about choices in their lives, including decisions to commit crime. This theory holds that when deciding whether to commit an illegal act, a person assesses the potential rewards and risks and then acts accordingly. If society provides enough punishment, a rational actor will decide not to commit crime. Thus, the threat of punishment acts as a deterrent to committing crime.
Of course, not everyone acts rationally. Human beings are prone to doing stupid things, even when they know they’re stupid. And then, of course, you can’t forget the impact of drugs and mental illness. A person high on methamphetamine probably won’t do a very good job of analyzing potential risks and rewards.
Pointing the finger at society
Sometimes people make rational choices to engage in crime because their values are significantly different from those of mainstream society. For example, a gangbanger may rationally choose to commit assault to gain status within his gang. How does a person develop such antisocial values?
Criminologists have developed a number of theories to explain society’s role in crime. Social disorganization theory, for example, asserts that the structure of a neighborhood is strongly correlated to the amount of crime in that neighborhood. Where social structures are in decay, more crime is likely to occur. Poor schools, high unemployment, and a mix of commercial and residential property are some of the indicators of social disorganization.
Strain theory contends that everyone in society has generally the same goals and ambitions. But some people aren’t able to achieve those goals because they lack opportunity, attend poor schools, or have few positive role models, for example. In response, they resort to crime to achieve their goals. In other words, the frustration, or strain, of not achieving their goals leads them to commit crime. A variety of strain theories focuses on different causes of frustration.
Yet another theory, called the social learning theory, contends that criminals learn the skills, attitudes, and behaviors that lead to crime from the people they hang out with. Under this theory, a person’s peer group and family are instrumental in shaping the values that lead them to criminal or law-abiding behavior.
Other explanations for crime come from a collection of theories known as social control theories. Generally, these theories argue that crime is exciting and fun and provides immediate gratification, so most people would become criminals if not for a variety of “controls” that restrain the urge to commit crime. These controls may be external, such as family, schools, church, and the social bonds related to these organizations. Or they may be internal, such as self-discipline and strong self-esteem. In neighborhoods where institutional controls are weak, more crime occurs.
Blaming mental and physical defects
It’s increasingly clear that genetics, diet, brain chemistry, and even the environment can play a role in causing a person to commit crime.
Adoption studies have confirmed a genetic link between criminal parents and criminal conduct by their offspring. But these same studies also show that the environment created by the parents raising the children has an impact on the children’s criminal conduct. Thus, criminologists recognize that genetics are just part of the picture.
Other studies have shown that a poor diet can lead to learning disabilities, attention deficit/hyperactivity