11 Chapter 6-4Figure 6.4.1 Flexural strength of graphite materials vs. maximum grain size....Figure 6.4.2 Stress–strain relation of graphite.Figure 6.4.3 Properties of polygranular graphite material vs. temperature (n...Figure 6.4.4 Properties of polygranular carbon material vs. temperature (nor...
12 Chapter 6-5-1Figure 6.5.1.1 Aluminum smelter.Figure 6.5.1.2 Aluminum electrolysis cell.Figure 6.5.1.3 Aluminum potroom.Figure 6.5.1.4 Anode change. (a) Anode butt extraction, (b) bath crust skimm...Figure 6.5.1.5 Anode corner cracking.Figure 6.5.1.6 Severe air burn.Figure 6.5.1.7 Carbon dust floating on the bath.Figure 6.5.1.8 Poor anode butts.Figure 6.5.1.9 Anode with spikes.Figure 6.5.1.10 Anode consumption breakdown.Figure 6.5.1.11 Aluminum production flow sheet.Figure 6.5.1.12 Modern anode production steps.Figure 6.5.1.13 Multi‐deck sizer.Figure 6.5.1.14 Ball race mill.Figure 6.5.1.15 Bag house filter.Figure 6.5.1.16 Fines scale.Figure 6.5.1.17Figure 6.5.1.17 Dry aggregate preheater.Figure 6.5.1.18Figure 6.5.1.18 Paste kneader.Figure 6.5.1.19Figure 6.5.1.19 Paste cooler.Figure 6.5.1.20Figure 6.5.1.20 Anode block vibrator.Figure 6.5.1.21 Green anode cooling.Figure 6.5.1.22 Anode baking furnace.Figure 6.5.1.23 Furnace inner structure.Figure 6.5.1.24 Fire equipment.Figure 6.5.1.25 Firing system.Figure 6.5.1.26 Temperature, draft, and oxygen development in the first fire...Figure 6.5.1.27 Regenerative thermal oxidizer.Figure 6.5.1.28 Slotting machine.Figure 6.5.1.29Figure 6.5.1.29 Butts before cleaning.Figure 6.5.1.30Figure 6.5.1.30 Anode cover cleaner.Figure 6.5.1.31Figure 6.5.1.31 Butts after shot blasting.Figure 6.5.1.32 Iron casting.
13 Chapter 6-5-2Figure 6.5.2.1 Aluminum electrolysis cell.Figure 6.5.2.2 Cathode blocks.Figure 6.5.2.3 Cathode wear phenomena.Figure 6.5.2.4 Drained cell configuration (example, schematic).Figure 6.5.2.5 Examples of a surface‐profiled cathode bottom. (a) Longitudin...
14 Chapter 6-5-3Figure 6.5.3.1 The era of iron and steel: this scheme gives a rough overview...Figure 6.5.3.2 Reproduction of a Celtic bloomery furnace for iron production...Figure 6.5.3.3 Blast furnace. Iron ore, coke, and additives are charged at t...Figure 6.5.3.4 Steel production routes today.Figure 6.5.3.5 Typical EAF setup (typical vessel diameter 6–8 m).Figure 6.5.3.6 Typical operation cycle of an EAF.Figure 6.5.3.7 Specific input–output balance of typical EAF plants [].Figure 6.5.3.8 Dependence of typical tap to tap times of an EAF cycle on the...Figure 6.5.3.9 Basic EAF furnace setups (left AC furnace, right DC furnace) ...Figure 6.5.3.10 Production shares by region (before and after the financial ...Figure 6.5.3.11 Steelmaking capacity shares by region (% of total capacity) ...Figure 6.5.3.12 Pig iron and DRI for EAF steel production.Figure 6.5.3.13 Crude steel production.Figure 6.5.3.14 (a) A GE is a cylinder made of graphite with selectable leng...Figure 6.5.3.15 Dependence of EAF current and required electrode diameter.Figure 6.5.3.16 Overview about basic consumption mechanisms of graphite elec...Figure 6.5.3.17 Overview about major development steps of the EAF technology...Figure 6.5.3.18 Production costs in EAF steelmaking: besides raw material co...Figure 6.5.3.19 Electricity price versus installed solar and wind capacity. ...Figure 6.5.3.20 Discontinuous consumption images: (a) cracks and (b) SEL.Figure 6.5.3.21 Available GE capacity by GE producer in t/year.
15 Chapter 6-5-5Figure. 6.5.5.1 Assembling a large diameter carbon electrodes.Figure. 6.5.5.2 Dimensions of carbon electrodes. (a) Length: 2000–3500 mm. (...Figure. 6.5.5.3 Joint systems. (a) Conical joint (male/female) and (b) joint...
16 Chapter 6-5-6Figure 6.5.6.1 The two types of self‐baking electrodes [8].Figure 6.5.6.2 The process of self‐baking electrodes [8].
17 Chapter 6-5-7Figure 6.5.7.1 Shell and tube heat exchanger.Figure 6.5.7.2 Drilled blocks of block graphite heat exchangers.Figure 6.5.7.3 Different designs of graphite plates.Figure 6.5.7.4 Plate heat exchangers.Figure 6.5.7.5 Tunnel tray section of an absorption column made from DIABON®...Figure 6.5.7.6 Cross section of a bottom‐fired HCl synthesis unit – all inte...Figure 6.5.7.7 DIABON® volute case of a graphite pump.
18 Chapter 6-5-8Figure. 6.5.8.1 Crucible arrangement used in the production of ultrahigh‐pur...Figure. 6.5.8.2 Schematic illustration showing the structure of a horizontal...Figure 6.5.8.3 (a) Sketch illustrating the principle of electrical discharge...Figure. 6.5.8.4 Sketch showing the principle of pressure sintering.Figure. 6.5.8.5 Carbon brushes.Figure. 6.5.8.6 Current collectors.
19 Chapter 6-5-9Figure. 6.5.9.1 Polycrystalline structure of artificial graphite [5].Figure. 6.5.9.2 Graphite single crystal structure.Figure. 6.5.9.3 Radiation damage spikes in graphite.Figure. 6.5.9.4 Graphite crystallite radiation damage.Figure 6.5.9.5 (a) Micrograph of unirradiated Gilsonite graphite [10]. (b) M...Figure. 6.5.9.6 Changes of physical properties due to fast neutron irradiati...Figure. 6.5.9.7 Thermal conductivity of unirradiated graphite vs. measuring ...Figure. 6.5.9.8 Dimensional changes of ATR‐2E graphite irradiated at 550 °C....Figure. 6.5.9.9 Dimensional changes of ATR‐2E graphite irradiated at 500 °C....
20 Chapter 6-5-10Figure 6.5.10.1 Schematic drawing of a graphite lattice (a) and a first‐stag...Figure 6.5.10.2 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) micrographs of natural gr...Figure 6.5.10.3 In‐plane and through‐plane electrical resistivity (a) and el...Figure 6.5.10.4 Examples for EG‐based flat gaskets and packing glands.Figure 6.5.10.5 Electrical conductivity of EG and natural graphite (NG) fill...
21 Chapter 6-5-11Figure. 6.5.11.1 Laboratory equipment made of glass‐like carbon.
22 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Typical construction of (a) zinc carbon cells and (b) alkaline ma...Figure 7.2 Working principle of a lead acid battery (the arrow directions in...Figure 7.3 Electron probe microanalysis of different regions of cycled negat...Figure 7.4 Working principle of a Li‐ion battery.Figure 7.5 Basic structural unit of a Li‐ion cell with electrodes, separator...Figure 7.6 Application of carbon and graphite materials in Li‐ion batteries ...Figure 7.7 Evolution of discharge capacities of typical graphitizable and no...Figure 7.8 Characteristic charge/discharge potential curve of graphite and a...Figure 7.9 Lithium storage in (a) in perfectly graphitized graphite and (b) ...Figure 7.10 Scanning electron micrographs of coke before and after graphitiz...Figure 7.11 Reversible capacity as function of graphitization degree.Figure 7.12 The solid electrolyte interphase (SEI). (a) Electrode covered wi...Figure 7.13 Coulombic efficiency as a function of BET specific surface area....Figure 7.14 Li intercalation (a) in the presence of an effective SEI and (b,...Figure 7.15 First cycle potential curves of raw coke (blue), of as‐graphitiz...Figure 7.16 Further material design aspects. (a) Particle size and rate capa...Figure 7.17 Characteristic charge/discharge potential curve of hard carbon a...Figure 7.18 Overview on anode materials that are used in commercial batterie...Figure 7.19 Li‐ion battery Anode Material Market. MT, metric tonnes.Figure 7.20 Comparison of the charge/discharge potential profiles of synthet...Figure 7.21 Typical commercial anode materials for Li‐ion batteries: (a) sph...Figure 7.22 Manufacturing of some amorphous carbons. (a) Hard carbons. (b) S...Figure 7.23 Manufacturing of graphitized mesocarbon microbeads.Figure 7.24 Manufacturing of natural graphite.Figure 7.25 Spheroidization of natural graphite. SEM images of (a) flake‐typ...Figure 7.26 Manufacturing of synthetic graphites. (a) Block graphitization. ...Figure 7.27 Reversible and irreversible capacities of some carbon nanomateri...Figure 7.28 Typical conductive additives for Li‐ion batteries: (a) carbon bl...Figure 7.29 The electrochemical double layer according to the Helmholtz mode...Figure 7.30 Working principle of electrochemical double‐layer capacitors. (a...Figure 7.31 Discharge voltage curve of an ideal capacitor.Figure 7.32 Charge storage in pores of different diameters.Figure 7.33 Discharge capacitance (as a function of the specific surface are...Figure 7.34 Specific capacitance as function of the specific surface area. (...Figure 7.35 Synthesis of activated carbons for applications in electrochemic...Figure 7.36 Coconut shell‐derived activated carbon (at different magnificati...Figure 7.37 Basic principle of a redox flow battery.Figure 7.38 Flow‐through and flow‐by electrodes.Figure 7.39 Manufacturing concepts of bipolar plates for redox flow batterie...Figure 7.40 Sigracet® bipolar plates for redox flow batteries. Graphite‐comp...Figure 7.41 Manufacturing routes for carbon felts.Figure 7.42 Optical micrographs of (a, b) Sigracell® carbon felts and SEM im...Figure 7.43 Reticulated vitreous carbon manufacturing.Figure 7.44 Micrographs of RVC foams. Source: Friedrich et al. 2004 [131] an...Figure 7.45 Structure of a PEMFC stack and single cell (exploded view).Figure 7.46 Injection‐molded carbon–polymer composite plate (a) and flexible...Figure 7.47 Manufacturing routes for GDLs and GDEs.Figure 7.48 Reel‐to‐reel processing of carbon fiber‐based gas diffusion laye...Figure 7.49 Manufacturing