FIRST BABYLONIAN EMPIRE (1900-1600 B.C.): Hammurabi, a great ruler. Code of 285 laws, practically every kind of legal document found, mortgages, deeds of sale, guarantees, promissory notes, etc. Canal built.
KASSITE RULE IN BABYLONIA (1600-1150 B.C.): Much art destroyed.
PHRYGIANS SETTLED IN ASIA MINOR (1100 B.C.).
HEBREW KINGDOM UNDER DAVID (c. 1000 B.C.): Kingdom of Jews divided into Kingdom of Judah and Kingdom of Israel, 975 B.C. Famine in Israel. Israel, an Assyrian province, 741 B.C. Jews under Ptolemies, 323-198 B.C.
MEDIAN EMPIRE (835-750 B.C.)
ASSYRIAN EMPIRE (884-606 B.C.): First Period, 884-745 B.C. Second Period, 745-626 B.C. Kingdom of Israel destroyed by Sargon II, King of Assyria, 722 B.C. Assurbanipal, 668-626 B.C. Library founded in Nineveh, 630 B.C. Art highly developed. Fall of Nineveh, the Assyrian capital, 612 B.C. End of Assyrian Empire, 606 B.C.
CHALDEAN OR SECOND BABYLONIAN EMPIRE (625 c. 550 B.C.): King of Babylon (Nebuchadnezzar) destroyed Jerusalem, 586 B.C.
PERSIAN EMPIRE (550-330 B.C.): Cyrus, 550-530 B.C. Cambyses, 530-522 B.C. Egypt became Persian province, 528 B.C. Darius, 521-485 B.C. Persian conquest of Ionia, 494 B.C. Defeat of Persians, 479 B.C. Alexander conquered Babylon and destroyed Persepolis, 331 B.C.
CHAPTER 3
Asiatic Empires
HISTORY
Before 3000 B.C. the Sumerians—original inhabitants of Assyria—had founded walled cities and developed an elaborate civilization, but they were conquered by invading Semitic Akkadians, who took over political control about 2300 B.C. The wealth of precious metals that have been excavated denotes a prosperous civilization flourished in this section of the world.
The first Babylonian Empire, spreading over the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, was founded by Hammurabi, a Semite, about 1900 B.C. About 1600 B.C. Babylon, its leading city, was harassed by the Kassites who brought with them the horse and war chariot and established their own kingdom. In the meantime, a settlement of Ashur, in the northern part of the valley, had become very strong and assumed leadership, while Babylon became a lesser power. For centuries the power swayed back and forth between the two capitals, Nineveh of Assyria and Babylon of Babylonia.
Assyria became an empire as early as 884 B.C. and later was the most powerful Asiatic state. The private life of one of its rulers, Assurbanipal, and his queen is depicted on many bas-reliefs of this period.
In the 8th century B.C., under a line of strong kings beginning with Sargon II (who was also a Semite), Assyria dominated western Asia but maintained her supremacy for only about 150 years. The empire fell in 612 B.C. when the Chaldeans (a Semitic tribe that had already captured Babylonia), assisted by the Medes and Persians, took Nineveh. Two kingdoms were established, the Medo-Persian in the north and the Chaldean in the south. During the Chaldean (or second Babylonian) Empire, Babylon was rebuilt until it surpassed Nineveh. This great new empire, under Nebuchadnezzar and his successors, lasted until about 550 B.C. when it was defeated by Cyrus.
Under Cyrus, the lands of the Medes, the Lydians, and Asia Minor (which included the Phrygians, Syrians, Parthians, and Amazons), were all conquered and thus the Persian Empire was established. Further conquest between 530 and 522 B.C. under Cyrus’ son Cambyses, resulted in the acquisition of most of Egypt. The Persian Empire passed into the hands of Greece when defeated by Alexander the Great about 331 B.C.
THE NEAR EAST 600 B.C.
Arts and costumes of Babylonia, Assyria, Mycenae (a Greek city), and even of Egypt in the early centuries, were so merged that it is very difficult to distinguish them individually.
In contrast with the simple garments of wool worn by the Sumerians, the costumes of Babylonian and Assyrian monarchs were very extravagant. During the most prosperous times, garments were practically covered with jewelry and woven embroidery.
The expression “to tie the nuptial knot” originated among the Babylonians. The priest, when conducting a wedding ceremony, would take two threads from the outer garment of the bride and two from that of the bridegroom and tie them together as a symbol of union.
About 550 B.C., Cyrus brought the long robe or sleeved tunic of the Medes to Persia and encouraged his people to adopt it. The Persians brought pantaloons to the other civilizations.
The Phrygian cap was used as far westward as Venice and the Doge wore it until the last days of Venetian independence in 1797, The myth of King Midas, a Phrygian ruler, no doubt was due to the wealth of gold in that country.
The Hebrews, who were inhabitants of Palestine, a territory situated to the Southwest of Syria in Asia Minor, adopted a costume with drapery and fringe which showed the influence of Babylonia, Assyria, and Persia. The costume worn by the Greeks after their Persian victory was dominant until 164 B.C. when Rome took over Palestine.
In most of the Asiatic countries the woman had very little freedom. Marriage at an early age originated as a protective measure since the conqueror of a country usually carried off many of the women and girls to his native country. Gradually this protection became an enslavement of the Hebrew woman. She was veiled and not permitted to uncover her head before any man who was a stranger. Before the exile of the Hebrew people, a daughter might be sold either as a concubine or a slave. In spite of these rigid rules, a woman was able to excel in certain professions; judges are listed among women of that time.
Greater freedom was enjoyed by the woman of Babylon since her role in this country was an influential one. In more ancient times she was esteemed as a prophetess, performed the religious ceremonies, and had authority to manage the property of the deity. The famous code of laws of Hammurabi lists laws of marriage similar to those of today. Although the father of the bridegroom paid the price of the bride, marriage was really more like a contract between man and wife. It is true that there were slaves, but a woman usually had economic independence and a good legal position with the right to be a scribe, judge, or witness. A married woman was permitted to take her husband’s place and property. Some of the women who lived in the city of Babylon achieved considerable power and some girls became secretaries. The making and using of dyes were important household duties of a woman. Research work was carried on by both men and women. The wealthy woman was philanthropic and sometimes bestowed sums of money on each citizen of the city in which she lived. She gave money for the construction of public buildings and made contributions for the enjoyment of her fellow citizens. At times she presided at public games and over religious ceremonies.
The man in the Asiatic countries engaged in agriculture and in the arts and crafts, which were well established. The title of shepherd taken by the early Chaldean princes shows the importance given to the pastoral habits of the people. The traveling salesman held an essential place in life; raw materials brought into the country were manufactured into finished products and sold in the countries farther to the north and west. The banker was also very important and was vital to the successful financing of the various businesses of the country.
The Sumerian slave was not considered as an inferior since he had been usually a freeman captured from another country. He was given many rights, including that of purchasing his freedom.
DRESS
A. Sources of information: coins, engraved gems, monuments, sculpture from palaces, temples, tombs, and stelae, bronze, marble, and fictile vases, illustrations by J. J. J. Tissot, the French artist who visited Palestine in the 19th century and made a series of water colors of the life of the Old and the New Testament, from the landscape and people of the time and suggestions from ancient and new manuscripts.
B. MEN (Early Babylonian, 1900-1600 B.C.)Garments:Outer upper: nude torso.Outer lower: skirt reaching to calf or ankle, sometimes