The Egyptians made such progress in civilization that by 3500 B.C. they were producing stone vessels, decorated pottery, figurines carved of bone or ivory, or modeled in clay, and woven linen cloth. Finally, metal tools came into general use.
Economic developments also advanced political progress. Formerly divided among many small states, the people of Egypt now formed two clearly defined kingdoms—the Kingdom of Upper Egypt in the Nile valley in the south; and the Kingdom of Lower Egypt in the Delta at the north.
About 3000 B.C., after bitter wars, the powerful but backward people of the South and those of the northern kingdom united as a nation composed of nobles, the masses, and slaves, under rule of the first supreme pharaoh, Menes. King Menes moved his capital from the South to a few miles above the Delta, and the city was named Memphis.
Our rich knowledge of this important country is due to the Nile valley’s dry climate, which has preserved materials for 3000 to 4000 years. Even the texture and color of fabrics and paints have remained intact through the centuries.
The Old Kingdom covering ten dynasties was followed by the Middle Kingdom consisting of Dynasties XI-XVII. The gigantic pyramids were a product of the Fourth Dynasty. The Middle Kingdom was the classic period of Egyptian history in which literature and poetry, sculpture, and architecture flourished. There were Semitic invasions, and the effects were reflected in art and dress after the fall of Dynasty XII.
The New Kingdom and the Late Period, embracing Dynasties XVIII-XXX, had a brilliant beginning but not so glorious an end. At the height of prosperity during the time of Rameses II many great temples were built; but in 525 B.C. Egypt met defeat from the Persians, and in 332 B.C. was conquered by Alexander the Great of Macedonia. Upon the latter’s death, Ptolemy, a Macedonian general, was made governor and for almost three hundred years the country was ruled by his descendants. The last of the Ptolemies was Cleopatra, the best known queen in Egyptian history. Roman rule followed for nearly five hundred years. Since that time the Arabs, Turks, French, and English, in turn, have ruled Egypt.
The Egyptian believed that in his future existence life would continue and he would enjoy all of the comforts he had known in his stay on earth. For that reason a permanent abiding place, huge and awe-inspiring, was erected for the dead and the body was preserved by mummification. Scenes depicting everyday life in the field and in the papyrus swamp, and every known trade and occupation, were portrayed on the walls of the tombs. These familiar scenes showed the brewer, the baker, the potter, and the scribe.
The costumes of men and women were similar during the Old and Middle Kingdoms. The style of dress showed the wearer’s wealth and importance. In the New Kingdom, beginning with Dynasty XVIII, changes in costume occurred as a result of commercial interests and contacts with other peoples. Among these changes were the innovation of the shirt; and many variations of skirts, one type shorter in front than in the back, another type looped up to show the pleated inner skirt, and another with a full pleated skirt.
Mirrors of highly polished metal aided the beauty-conscious lady of the Nile in applying powder, rouge to the lips, and paint to the eyelids and corners of the eyes in order to enhance their brilliance and to make them appear longer. The male likewise was particular about his appearance. The slave applied unguents to the master’s face and then shaved him with a bronze blade, ground very sharp with emery and stropped with soft ox-skin. The length of the beard indicated his station in life. It was the king who set the fashion for men in dress.
The king had to acknowledge his wife as his equal, if not his superior. Egyptian history includes queens who were great leaders. The woman of Egypt enjoyed social freedom and achieved legal advantage. She fought on the battlefield, entered alliances, and exerted much power. The Egyptian woman could hold property, a wife had complete control of the joint estates. A man was responsible for any irregular conduct of his wife. In the later years of Egyptian civilization when life became more secure the woman of a wealthy family was not permitted to work nor to fight. The position of woman became subordinate as is usual in a military society. There were two types of marriages: one without a full written contract, another with a full written contract. The latter included a dowry and the contract mentioned conditions in regard to property in case the marriage would be dissolved.
Various tasks occupied the men. In the palace there were wig-makers, sandalmakers, perfumers and special officials in charge of cosmetics. In the towns and cities, there were merchants, ceramists, jewelers, coppersmiths, and professional writers or scribes. Agriculture and weaving were important occupations.
In November, 1922, after Lord Carnavon and Howard Carter made the spectacular discovery and excavation of the tomb of Tutankhamen, the fashion world showed how much archaeological finds may affect costume. Shops were flooded with Egyptian-style textiles and costume jewelry, and dresses were draped in Cleopatra-like fashion. These influences continue to invade present-day styles from time to time.
DRESS
1 Sources of information: temples, Theban and other tombs, sculpture of the Pyramids of Gizeh, portrait statues, mural paintings, mummy cases, papyri manuscripts, colored hieroglyphs showing merchants, laborers, and kings.
2 MEN (Ancient Kingdom, Dynasties I-X)Garments:Outer upper: nude populace, until Dynasty V.Outer lower: short skirt of white linen worn by nobility; skirt wider and longer, Dynasties V and VI; triangular erection at side; soft material draped in different ways with large, stiff box pleat or fullness draped under belt at front; royal skirt with front rounded off and wide strip hanging from under girdle worn by king; loin cloth worn by peasant.Under: loin cloth worn by nobility in later part of period.Cloaks and overgarments: skins of wild beasts; long, elaborately draped robe worn by king for official business.Hair: black wig; round bob arranged in little curls; long hair falling from crown of head to shoulder worn later in period.Headdress: red wickerwork crown of Lower Egypt; tall, white, helmet-like crown of Upper Egypt; pshent, after 3700 B.C.; helmet headdress with royal snake or Symbol of royalty worn also by pharaoh; close-fitting hood with lappet at each side; claft; badge ending with gold fringe; simple fillet worn by man not of royal birth.Footwear: sandal of plaited or woven papyrus or palm leaves, worn out-of-doors.Accessories: ornamental girdle of painted leather or embroidered linen; walking stick ornamented with color and gold, inscribed with owner’s name.Jewelry: bracelet inlaid with paste or precious stones, for the upper or lower arm; anklet of colored embroidery or of gold and silver; necklace with pendant figure of god or sacred animal; gold, silver, bronze, or faïence ring; official seal ring of red carnelian used by pharaoh; beads in profusion, of emerald lapis lazuli, agate, carnelian, amethyst, onyx, jasper, garnet, rock crystal, and turquoise; pearl and amber also popular.Typical Colors: usually white; mineral dyes used at first, later vegetable dyes.Typical Materials: cloth of coarse texture; skirt of matting, worn by peasant.Make-up: postiche or artificial beard; various lords of the royal toilette important, called “superintendents of the clothes of the King,” “washers of the Pharoah,” etc.
3 WOMEN (Ancient Kingdom, Dynasties I-X)Garments:Outer upper and outer lower: tight tunic with 1 or 2 shoulder straps, bare breast.Cloak and overgarments: opaque and transparent shoulder cape.Hair: cut short to accommodate wig; wig of real hair worn by well-to-do, of wool, by lowest class; wig set low on forehead; fringed wig sometimes reaching to shoulder; black wig ornamented with gold; gold wig sometimes terminating in braids; coiffure supports worn; straight hair in 2 long tresses or rolls hanging to breast; hair also worn loosely; lotus flower often intertwined in the hair; horus lock.1. Pectoral 2. Kalasiris 3. Lily or Lotus 4. Apron 5. Cross or Key of Life 6. Transparent Outerskirt 7. Loin Cloth 8. Hieroglyph 9. CollarHeaddress: miter-shaped cap with long ear-tabs; type similar to claft worn by man; helmet-like cap; thin bonnet of soft material with hood effect; small toque; festive coiffure resembling hawk or guinea head; vulture with outspread wings, symbolic of Maati, Goddess of Truth; vulture cap; feather or plumed headdress of Isis worn by the queen; stiff turban with uraeus