The lack of resources to undertake the audit interviews was disappointing. However an opportunity did arise a little later and thus a third stage to the overall study was initiated. This third stage involved a majority of urban enterprises and included a number of comparatively larger enterprises and as per the LDNP audits only involved serviced accommodation. Following established practice the preliminary survey was undertaken and then the owners/managers were invited to participate in the more in-depth audit and personal interviews stage (78 enterprises). It should be noted that there is a potentially significant difference between this sample and that of the LDNP in that the enterprises were each invited to participate in the audit stage but they were also encouraged to do so by asking each one personally if they would support the project as this would be beneficial to the student interviewers as part of their final year studies in Tourism Management. It is logical therefore that the urban sample is less subject to the possibility of bias towards the promotion of greening than their counterparts in the LDNP group, who volunteered. The focus in this stage on urban tourism enterprises is particularly notable given that they have received even less attention in terms of their environmental performance and similarly in the context of ‘sustainable tourism’ than their rural counterparts (Hinch, 1996). Whilst Hinch’s analysis is dated to nearly 20 years ago, there is little evidence since to change such perception. But then it is far easier for policymakers to consider tourism in rural settings when it comes to advocating greening, where tourism supply may well dominate whilst the same cannot be said for urban, especially city, localities, wherein questions might well be raised by the owners as to why tourism enterprises are apparently being singled out to address their environmental management practices! In total, this research amounts in effect to a longitudinal study into the greening of tourism enterprises that commenced in the 1990s and concluded in terms of empirical research in 2012. For clarity and reference, the sample sets for the three stages are presented in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1. Categorization of survey returns.
The implementation of predominantly the same methodology, including only slightly modified questionnaires, e.g. VisitScotland or Area Tourist Board instead of Cumbria Tourist Board, means that these four data sets are directly comparable. Various areas encompassed within this research were found to be evident in similar studies and this contributes further to opportunities for comparison and the robustness of the study. Certainly there are some differences between the data sets. The first to note is the different time frames. It is argued this is of little significance between the 2006 set and that of 2001 though during this period utility costs increased, the infrastructure for recycling improved and the period witnessed further attention to promoting EMS practices and, more widely, CSR. These factors are equally pertinent to the 2011 data set. However, a further factor is that the empirical research was undertaken in the wake of the 2007–8 financial/economic crisis. This may well have influenced some of the data, especially any indicators that involved costs and also possibly the attitudes of the owners/managers to such matters. The possibility of such influences is considered, as and where appropriate, in the analysis of the data, which is presented in the following sequence of chapters. Findings from the studies into local food producers and arts and crafts, as and where appropriate, are included in these chapters.
The Findings and Structure
The basis of the second chapter, drawing primarily on the data from the LDNP, is the presentation of the findings on the enterprises themselves, for example, period of operation, length of ownership, turnover and the owners/managers with attention to their memberships of trade associations, which may or may not be influential to their awareness of and attitudes towards EM practices. Employment, a key element in the rationale for supporting the development of tourism, is given particular attention and includes training and development, recruitment and influences on employment. Overall, the aim is to establish a general profile of the participating enterprises and their owners/managers. Although similar data were gathered in both stages two and three, it is considered that given the similarities between these data and with consideration of the constraints of space within these pages that the presentation of similar data from 2006 and 2011 would add little value, especially as within Chapter 2 comparisons are drawn across all the categories and, as to be expected, marked differences in the findings according to the data from 2006 and 2011 are highlighted. Chapter 3 addresses the theme of ‘Sustainable Supply Chain Management’ (SSCM), which encompasses the ‘purchasing patterns and practices’ area of the surveys of the enterprises. However, SSCM is far wider in scope and application than this and draws attention to EMS and CSR. In tourism, SSCM is arguably most readily recognized and has gained prominence in relation to the tour operating sector. This led to some deliberation as to whether SSCM as a theme for discussion should be included given the comparatively limited data to present that would not fit well in the context of the other themes/chapters, resulting in the decision to include SSCM as a chapter focus given the following factors:
• Tour operators, as a category within tourism supply, were not included in the empirical research consideration of SSCM.
• Tour operators account for approximately 29% of tourist spending within the EU (Leidner, 2004).
• Tour operators are significant players in tourism:
Although the tourism sector includes many actors, to date tour operators still have significant power in selecting and assembling suppliers in a holiday package, as well in influencing consumers’ choices with respect to destinations, accommodations and additional services. (Mosselaer et al., 2012, p. 74).
• Tour operators are being encouraged to adopt EMS and to encourage their suppliers to adopt such practices.
Their inclusion draws attention to issues that do not arise so directly in the other areas and thus contributes to the scope and comprehensiveness of the discussion and overall value.
It is within this context that findings arising from the study into the purchasing practices of the enterprises are presented, though not all the data in this category as some of this fits better within other themes, e.g. Chapter 6. This theme of wider responsibility of enterprises is continued in Chapter 4, which introduces Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). The primary focus herein is on the enterprises’ wider contribution to the local economy and other aspects of CSR such as support for environmental initiatives and community activities. The focus then narrows in the following chapter to concentrate on environmental policy and EM practices. In simple terms this could be considered as what the enterprises are doing to address the three Rs: reduce, reuse and recycle.
Throughout these chapters a recurrent element is that of ‘in what ways are tourism enterprises contributing to the local economy and local community?’ This is a significant aspect of the social dimension of sustainability. To an extent, this is addressed in Chapter 6 ‘Local Produce, Local Products’ which