79. Lysippos (c. 395–305 B.C.E.), Head of Alexander the Great, Pergamon, Roman copy after a Greek original, Greek, Classical style, c. 320 B.C.E. Marble, height: 41 cm. Archaeological Museum, Istanbul.
Taking the throne at the age of twenty, Alexander was determined to continue his father, Philip II of Macedon’s, dream of conquering Asia. Rallying the Macedonian army, Alexander lead a force of 43,000 infantry and 5,500 cavalry from Greece to Persia to eventually overthrow the entire Persian Empire in battle before going on to invade India. There, Alexander was forced to turn back due to the protests of his troops, but in the short time that he had reigned he had already amassed one of the largest empires in ancient history.
Contracting a fever while returning to Greece from India, Alexander died in Babylon at the age of thirty-two, however, Alexander’s short life had a huge impact on the history of the world. Shortly after his death, Alexander’s generals divided the conquered lands amongst themselves, thus dispersing Hellenistic culture throughout the East and ultimately influencing the world as we know it today.
80. Skopas (c. 400–350 B.C.E.), Meleager, 2nd century Roman copy of a Greek original, Greek, Classical style, c. 340 B.C.E. Parian marble, height: 123 × 63 × 42 cm. Arthur M. Sackler Museum, Harvard University, Cambridge.
81. So-called Capitoline Brutus, Roman, Republican style, 4th-3rd century B.C.E., the bust is a modern adding. Bronze, height: 69 cm. Musei Capitolini, Palazzo dei Conservatori, Rome.
According to legendary early history Lucius Junius Brutus was the founder of the Roman Republic at the end of the sixth century B.C.E. His story is told by various historians, particularly, Titus Livius. Known for his sense of justice, his sense of honor and his generosity, he is one of the main characters in “The Life of Publicola”, one of the forty-six biographies in the Parallel Lives of Famous Statesmen (Bíoi parálleloi) by Plutarch.
These different sources reflect the immoral and criminal administration of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the last king of Rome and his sons Titus, Sextus Tarquinius and Arruns.
Tarquinius declared war on the small town of Ardea. While the soldiers lay siege to the city, Sextus, the youngest son of the King, asks Lucretia, the wife of fellow nobleman Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, to be taken into her home as her guest. Aroused by Lucretia’s famed beauty and purity, Sextus takes advantage of her hospitality and rapes her the same night. After he departs, Lucretia sends word to her father and her husband who, accompanied by Brutus, rush to her. Lucretia brings the crime to light and makes the men swear to take vengeance upon the rapist before stabbing herself to death.
Organizing an armed uprising with the Roman people to drive the besieging Tarquins away, Brutus and the opponents of the king oust the tyrannical ruler. As a result of their leadership, Brutus and Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus became the first elected consuls. However, the resentment of the Roman population against all Collatine forces eventually caused the last consul to go into exile. Publius Valerius Publicola was then elected in Collatinus’ stead.
In spite of this dramatic show of democracy, not everyone in Rome was convinced of these Republican ideas and before long the sons of the old-established aristocratic families hatched a conspiracy. Among the leaders were two of the sons of Brutus, Titus and Tibberius, who, because of found letters sent to the Tarquins as evidence, were immediately exiled.
As consul, Brutus saw himself forced to judge them and condemned his sons to death, and without batting an eyelid, participated in their torture and execution. At the same time Tarquinius Superbus and his Etruscan allies were still attempting to find support in Rome to invade the Roman territory. still, the consuls were expecting them and during the battle Arruns and Brutus both die in a duel.
The Roman patrician of the gender of Iunii Bruti remained, for a long time, a very influential statesmen. Another well-known member of this family, was none other than the adopted son of Julius Caesar, Marcus Junius Brutus, who was most notably involved in Caesar’s assassination on the fifth of March 44 BCE. Consequently, both, the founder and destroyer of the Roman Republic, belonged to the same family.
82. Heliodoros, Pan teaching Daphnis to play the panpipes, Roman copy after a Greek original, 3rd-2nd centuries B.C.E. Marble, 158 cm. Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli, Naples.
83. Metope from the Tomb of the Swing, Cyrene, Libya, Hellenistic style, c. 200 B.C.E. Chalk painting, 34 × 28 cm. In situ.
84. Female Votive Head, Sanctuary of Diana, Nemi, Etruscan, 3rd century B.C.E. Pinkish-yellow clay, height: 26.5 cm. Museo Archeologico, Florence.
85. Artemis of Ephesus, Roman copy from Hadrian reign (117–138 C.E.) after a Greek original, Greek, Hellenistic retrospective style, 2nd century B.C.E. Bronze and alabaster, 203 cm. Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples.
86. Sarcophagus of Larthia Seianti, Marcianella Necropolis, Chiusi, Etruscan, 175–150 B.C.E. Terracotta. Museo Archeologico di Firenze, Florence.
87. Young Boy, Greek, Late Hellenistic style, c. 100 B.C.E.-10 °C.E. Pentelic marble, 87.3 × 40 cm. Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond.
88. Gravestone of Apollonia, Athens, Greek, c. 100 B.C.E. Marble, 112.4 × 63.5 × 20 cm. The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles.
89. The Boxer of Quirinal or Terme Boxer, Roman copy of a Greek original, Hellenistic style, 100-50 B.C.E. Bronze, height: 128 cm. Museo Nazionale Romano, Palazzo Massimo alle Terme, Rome.
A rare bronze statue that survived from antiquity, this powerful image of a tired boxer is likely an original Hellenistic work, dated perhaps to the first century B.C.E. The seated pose of the boxer invites the viewer to look down at the figure, as he in turn looks up, perhaps to discover the verdict of the judge. He still wears his boxing gloves, and is badly bruised and bleeding, his face and ears swollen from the fight. Despite these wounds, he does not appear defeated. He has all the exaggerated musculature of the other Hellenistic works.
90. The Arringatore or Portrait of Aulus Metellus, Sanguineto (Lake Trasimeno) or Pila (near Perugia), Roman subject, Etruscan workmanship, Republican style, c. 90 B.C.E. Bronze, solid and hollow lost wax casting, height: 170 cm. Museo Archeologico, Florence.
91. Togatus Barberini, Roman, first quarter of the 1st century B.C.E. Marble. Musei Capitolini, Rome.
In Roman tradition, figural sculpture was not intended to portray a young, athletic ideal, as it was for the Greeks. Instead, it represented the ideal of Roman society: the wise, elder statesman, patriarch of a family, part of a distinguished lineage. Sculptures were portraits of individuals and included all their flaws – wrinkles, warts, funny noses and knobby knees. This style is called “verism,” meaning truth. It was the dominant style during the Roman Republic. Here, an elderly man holds portrait busts of his ancestors, showing his respect for them, and at the same time drawing attention to his lineage. Such portraits would be prominently displayed in the atrium of the home.
92. Male Portrait, Manganello Sanctuary, Cerveteri, Etruscan, early 1st century B.C.E. Painted terracotta, height: 32 cm. Museo Nazionale Etrusco di Villa Giulia, Rome.
93. Portrait