View each member as having a right to be his or her own unique self (i.e., to individuate from the emotional field of the family).
Strive for an equal division of labor among family members.
Consider egalitarian role relationships between spouses desirable.
Hold the nuclear family as the standard.
These orientations were first described by Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961) as patterns of “American” values. How can we begin to consider whether (or not) notions like these coincide with the traditional value systems of other cultural groups? Table 3.2 summarizes five general dimensions of European American culture and contrasts them with those of four groups of color as part of an examination of culture within the family therapy process (Ho, 1987).
PEOPLE–NATURE DIMENSION
Traditional Western thinking assumes the value of mastery of and control over nature. Accordingly, most therapists are trained to operate from a framework that subscribes to the belief that problems are solvable and that both therapist and client must take an active part in solving problems via manipulation and control. Active intervention is stressed in controlling or changing the environment. The four other ethnic groups listed in Table 3.2 come from traditions that view people in harmonious co‐existence with nature.
Confucian philosophy, for example, stresses a set of rules aimed at promoting loyalty, respect, and harmony among family members (Moodley & West, 2005). Harmony within the family and the environment leads to harmony within the self. Integration within the family unit and acceptance of the environment guide the solving of problems; while Western culture advocates defining and attacking problems directly, traditional Asian cultures tend to accommodate or deal with problems through indirection. In raising their children, many Asian people believe that it is better to avoid direct confrontation and to use deflection. A White family might deal with a child who has watched too many hours of TV by saying, “It's time to turn off the TV off and study.” To be more emphatic, the parent might say, “You'll be grounded unless the TV goes off!” An Asian parent might instead respond by saying, “That looks like a boring program; I think your friend John must be doing his homework by now,” or, “I think Father wants to watch his favorite program.” Such an approach stems from the wish to avoid conflict and to achieve balance and harmony among members of the family and the wider environment—values that continue to be associated with emotional well‐being among Chinese people (Wang, Wong, & Yeh, 2016).
Table 3.2 Cultural Value Preferences of Middle‐Class White European Americans and People of Color: A Comparative Summary
Source: Ho, M. K. (1987). Family therapy with ethnic minorities (p. 232). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Copyright 1987 by Sage Publications. Reprinted by permission.
| Area of relationship | Middle‐class White Americans | Asian Americans | American Indians | Black Americans | Hispanic Americans |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| People to nature/environment | Mastery over | Harmony with | Harmony with | Harmony with | Harmony With |
| Time orientation | Future | Past–present | Present | Present | Past–present |
| People relations | Individual | Collateral | Collateral | Collateral | Collateral |
| Preferred mode of activity | Doing | Doing | Being‐in‐becoming | Doing | Being‐in‐becoming |
| Nature of people | Good and bad | Good | Good | Good and bad | Good |
In this way, the U.S. values that portray the domination of nature (i.e., conquering space, taming the wilderness, or harnessing nuclear energy) through control and manipulation of the universe can find reflection in family counseling perspectives. Family systems counseling theories attempt to describe, explain, predict, and control family dynamics. The therapist actively attempts to understand what is going on in the family system (structural alliances and communication patterns), identify the problems (dysfunctional aspects of the dynamics), and work on changing them directly or indirectly through manipulation and control (therapeutic interventions). Ethnic minorities or subgroups that view people as harmonious with nature or expect that nature may appropriately overwhelm people (“acts of God”) may find the therapist's mastery‐over‐nature approach inconsistent with or antagonistic to their worldview. Indeed, attempts to intervene actively in family patterns and relationships may themselves be perceived as a problem, because they might unbalance the existing harmony.
TIME DIMENSION
How different societies, cultures, and people view time exerts a pervasive influence on their lives. U.S. society has been characterized as preoccupied with the future (Katz, 1985; Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck, 1961). Our society lives according to precise increments of time, in that we have divided it into seconds, minutes, hours, days, weeks, months, and years. Time is frequently viewed and discussed as a commodity that constitutes fixed, static categories (“time is money” and “stop wasting time”) rather than as a dynamic and flowing process. It has been pointed out that the United States’ future orientation may be linked to other values as well: (a) our emphasis on youth and achievement, in which children are expected to “better their parents”; (b) controlling one's own destiny by future planning and saving for a rainy day; and (c) optimism and hope for a better future. The spirit of the nation may be embodied in an old General Electric slogan, “Progress is our most important product.”
Table 3.2 suggests that both American Indians and Black Americans tend to value a more present‐time orientation, whereas Asian Americans and Hispanic Americans have a combination past–present focus. Historically, Asian societies have valued the past, as reflected in ancestor worship and the equating of age with wisdom and respectability. This contrasts with U.S. culture, in which youth is valued over age and one's usefulness in life is believed to be over once one hits the retirement years. As compared to European American middle‐class norms, Latinx Americans also exhibit a past–present time orientation. Strong hierarchical structures in the family and respect for elders and ancestors combine in this direction. American Indians also differ from their White counterparts in that they are traditionally very grounded in the here and now rather than the future. American Indian philosophy incorporates the belief that time is flowing, circular, and harmonious. Artificial divisions of time (as represented in rigid schedules) are disruptive to this natural pattern. African Americans may also prioritize the present, both as the result of the spiritual quality of their existence and their history of survival and resilience in the face of racism. Across all these cultures, difficulties may occur when the counselor or therapist is unaware of potential differences of time perspective (Hines & Boyd‐Franklin, 2005).
First, if time differences exist between a family of color and the conventionally trained therapist, it may be manifested in a different sense of the pace of time: both may sense things are