55 55. Independent Expert Group of the Global Nutrition Report. Global Nutrition Report: Action on Equity to End Malnutrition. Bristol, UK: Development Initiatives, 2020.
56 56. Swinburn BA, Sacks G, Hall KD, et al. The global obesity pandemic: shaped by global drivers and local environments. Lancet 2011; 378(9793):804–14.
57 57. Danaei G, Singh GM, Paciorek CJ, et al. The global cardiovascular risk transition: associations of four metabolic risk factors with macroeconomic variables in 1980 and 2008. Circulation 2013; 127(14):1493–502, 1502e1‐8.
58 58. Ezzati M, Vander Hoorn S, Lawes CM, et al. Rethinking the “diseases of affluence” paradigm: global patterns of nutritional risks in relation to economic development. PLoS Med 2005; 2(5):e133.
59 59. Goryakin Y, Suhrcke M. Economic development, urbanization, technological change and overweight: What do we learn from 244 Demographic and Health Surveys? Econ Hum Biol 2014; 14:109–27.
60 60. Wells JC, Marphatia AA, Cole TJ, McCoy D. Associations of economic and gender inequality with global obesity prevalence: understanding the female excess. Soc Sci Med 2012; 75(3):482–90.
61 61. Huffman SK, Rizov M. Determinants of obesity in transition economies: the case of Russia. Econ Hum Biol 2007; 5(3):379–91.
62 62. Xu X, Variyam JN, Zhao Z, Chaloupka FJ. Relative food prices and obesity in US metropolitan areas: 1976–2001. PLoS One 2014; 9(12):e114707.
63 63. Lakdawalla D, Philipson T. The growth of obesity and technological change. Econ Hum Biol 2009; 7(3):283–93.
64 64. Pickett KE, Kelly S, Brunner E, Lobstein T, Wilkinson RG. Wider income gaps, wider waistbands? An ecological study of obesity and income inequality. J Epidemiol Community Health 2005; 59(8):670–4.
65 65. Ogden CL, Fakhouri TH, Carroll MD, et al. Prevalence of obesity among adults, by household income and education—United States, 2011–2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2017; 66(50):1369.
66 66. Jo Y. What money can buy: Family income and childhood obesity. Econ Hum Biol 2014; 15:1–12.
67 67. Marmot M, Bell R. Social determinants and non‐communicable diseases: time for integrated action. BMJ 2019; 364:1251.
68 68. Yusuf S, Reddy S, Ôunpuu S, Anand S. Global burden of cardiovascular diseases: part I: general considerations, the epidemiologic transition, risk factors, and impact of urbanization. Circulation 2001; 104(22):2746–53.
69 69. Nandi A, Sweet E, Kawachi I, Heymann J, Galea S. Associations between macrolevel economic factors and weight distributions in low‐ and middle‐income countries: a multilevel analysis of 200,000 adults in 40 countries. Am J Public Health 2014; 104(2):e162–71.
70 70. Carrillo‐Larco RM, Bernabé‐Ortiz A, Pillay TD, et al. Obesity risk in rural, urban and rural‐to‐urban migrants: prospective results of the PERU MIGRANT study. Int J Obes 2016; 40(1):181–5.
71 71. Ghosh‐Dastidar B, Cohen D, Hunter G, et al. Distance to store, food prices, and obesity in urban food deserts. Am J Prev Med 2014; 47(5):587–95.
72 72. Cooksey‐Stowers K, Schwartz MB, Brownell KD. Food swamps predict obesity rates better than food deserts in the United States. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2017; 14(11):1366.
73 73. Jia P, Cao X, Yang H, et al. Green space access in the neighbourhood and childhood obesity. Obes Rev 2021; 22(S1):e13100.
74 74. The NCD Risk Factor Collaboration (NCD‐RisC). Rising rural body‐mass index is the main driver of the global obesity epidemic in adults. Nature 2019; 569(7755):260–4.
75 75. Hales CM, Fryar CD, Carroll MD, Freedman DS, Aoki Y, Ogden CL. Differences in obesity prevalence by demographic characteristics and urbanization level among adults in the United States, 2013–2016. JAMA 2018; 319(23):2419–29.
76 76. Shen C, Zhou Z, Lai S, et al. Urban‐rural‐specific trend in prevalence of general and central obesity, and association with hypertension in Chinese adults, aged 18–65 years. BMC Public Health 2019; 19(1):661.
77 77. Choi B, Schnall PL, Yang H, et al. Sedentary work, low physical job demand, and obesity in US workers. Am J Ind Med 2010; 53(11):1088–101.
78 78. Robinson TN, Banda JA, Hale L, et al. Screen media exposure and obesity in children and adolescents. Pediatrics 2017; 140(suppl 2):S97–101.
79 79. Fang K, Mu M, Liu K, He Y. Screen time and childhood overweight/obesity: a systematic review and meta‐analysis. Child Care Health Dev 2019; 45(5):744–53.
80 80. Zhang G, Wu L, Zhou L, Lu W, Mao C. Television watching and risk of childhood obesity: a meta‐analysis. Eur J Public Health 2016; 26(1):13–8.
81 81. Hancox RJ, Milne BJ, Poulton R. Association between child and adolescent television viewing and adult health: a longitudinal birth cohort study. Lancet 2004; 364(9430):257–62.
82 82. Smith L, Fisher A, Hamer M. Television viewing time and risk of incident obesity and central obesity: the English longitudinal study of ageing. BMC Obes 2015; 2(1):12.
83 83. Yu E, Lippert AM. Neighborhood crime rate, weight‐related behaviors, and obesity: a systematic review of the literature. Sociol Compass 2016; 10(3):187–207.
84 84. Suglia SF, Shelton RC, Hsiao A, Wang YC, Rundle A, Link BG. Why the neighborhood social environment is critical in obesity prevention. J Urban Health 2016; 93(1):206–12.
85 85. Krueger PM, Reither EN. Mind the gap: race/ethnic and socioeconomic disparities in obesity. Curr Diab Rep 2015; 15(11):95.
86 86. Oyeyemi AL, Adegoke BO, Oyeyemi AY, Deforche B, De Bourdeaudhuij I, Sallis JF. Environmental factors associated with overweight among adults in Nigeria. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act 2012; 9(1):32.
87 87. Raftopoulou A. Geographic determinants of individual obesity risk in Spain: a multilevel approach. Econ Hum Biol 2017; 24:185–93.
88 88. Tung EL, Wroblewski KE, Boyd K, Makelarski JA, Peek ME, Lindau ST. Police‐recorded crime and disparities in obesity and blood pressure status in Chicago. J Am Heart Assoc 2018; 7(7):e008030.
89 89. Foster S, Giles‐Corti B. The built environment, neighborhood crime and constrained physical activity: an exploration of inconsistent findings. Prev Med 2008; 47(3):241–51.
90 90. Sandy R, Tchernis R, Wilson J, Liu G, Zhou X. Effects of the built environment on childhood obesity: the case of urban recreational trails and crime. Econ Hum Biol 2013; 11(1):18–29.
91 91. Richardson AS, Troxel WM, Ghosh‐Dastidar M, et al. Pathways through which higher neighborhood crime is longitudinally associated with greater body mass index. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act 2017; 14(1):155.
92 92. Mujahid MS, Diez Roux AV, Shen M, et al. Relation between neighborhood environments and obesity in the Multi‐Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis. Am J Epidemiol 2008; 167(11):1349–57.
93 93. Pham DQ, Ommerborn MJ, Hickson DA, Taylor HA, Clark CR. Neighborhood safety and adipose tissue distribution in African Americans: the Jackson Heart Study. PLoS One 2014; 9(8):e105251.
94 94. Wallace C, Vandevijvere S, Lee A, Jaacks LM, Schachner M, Swinburn B. Dimensions of national culture associated with different trajectories of male and female mean body mass index in countries over 25 years. Obes Rev 2019; 20(suppl 2):20–9.
95 95. Benkeser RM, Biritwum R, Hill AG. Prevalence of overweight and obesity and perception of healthy and desirable body size in urban, Ghanaian women. Ghana Med J 2012; 46:66–75.
96 96. Holdsworth M, Gartner A, Landais E, Maire B, Delpeuch F. Perceptions of healthy and desirable body size in urban Senegalese women. Int J Obes 2004; 28:1561–8.
97 97. Popenoe R. Feeding Desire: Fatness, Beauty, and Sexuality Among a Saharan People. New York, NY: Routledge, 2004.
98 98. Walentowitz S. Women of great weight: fatness, reproduction, and gender dynamics in Tuareg society. In: Unnithan‐Kumar M, Tremayne, S (eds) Fatness and the Maternal Body: Women’s Experiences