Data Science in Theory and Practice. Maria Cristina Mariani

Toss a coin 10 times = sum of tails in 10 tosses

Definition 2.20 (Probability mass function) The pmf of a discrete random variable is given by

      Definition 2.21 (Probability density function) The pdf, of a continuous random variable is the function that satisfies

      We will discuss these notations in details in Chapter 20.

      Using these concepts, we can define the moments of the distribution. In fact, suppose that is any function, then we can calculate the expected value of the random variable when the joint density exists as:

      Now we can define the moments of the random vector. The first moment is a vector

      The expectation applies to each component in the random vector. Expectations of functions of random vectors are computed just as with univariate random variables. We recall that expectation of a random variable is its average value.

      The second moment requires calculating all the combination of the components. The result can be presented in a matrix form. The second central moment can be presented as the covariance matrix.

      (2.1)

      where we used the transpose matrix notation and since the , the matrix is symmetric.

      We note that the covariance matrix is positive semidefinite (nonnegative definite), i.e. for any vector , we have .

      Now we explain why the covariance matrix has to be semidefinite. Take any vector . Then the product

(2.2)

is a random variable (one dimensional) and its variance must be nonnegative. This is because in the one‐dimensional case, the variance of a random variable is defined as . We see that the variance is nonnegative for every random variable, and it is equal to zero if and only if the random variable is constant. The expectation of (2.2) is . Then we can write (since for any number , )

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