1.12.6 Maintainability
It is essential to ensure the grid's ability to maintain reliable operation and undergo timely modifications and repairs to ensure high‐quality power regardless of external factors variations [84]. The SG sub‐systems and components should be able to perform their functions for the pre‐defined period of time. Maintainability is an essential part of SG reliability.
1.12.7 Optimality
SG is characterized with the variations in power sources that are produced from conventional and various renewable sources. Also, the load capability for peak demand decreases will the increase of power network complexity. This requires highly distributed and optimal schemes and elements that ensure the grid's reliability and economic operation. Economic, size, and technical optimality should be ensured at the generation and demand sides [85]. Optimal placement and sizing of the distributed generations, charging stations, system modularizing, measurement systems, etc. are essential for creating SG energy paradigm and its scalability.
1.12.8 Security
It is essential to create a secure SG at various levels, control, communication, and physical. The SG should have measures to protect its massive amount of data and to secure consumers' data privacy. Security needs a system‐wide solution for the various anomalies that could hinder physical and cyber levels of the grid [86]. The SG should be resilient against various coordinated and non‐coordinated attacks.
1.12.9 Upgradability
Upgradability is related to smart‐grid equipment adaptation criteria and substation equipment service life. Designers go through complex procedures related to substation equipment requirements. The equipment should implement long life cycles that consider reliability, upgradability, and interchangeability [87]. SG areas consist mostly of a long‐life lasting equipment as opposed to typical IT systems. Test and replacement of these devices usually requires hard work and should consider the high cost due to their large‐scale implementation and high importance usage. Furthermore, utilizing cryptographic strategies that surpass current security conditions is considered delaying the probable requirement of further upgrades [88].
1.13 Smart Grid Cost
Grid operators are required to entirely assess the estimated costs, benefits, and potential risks of implementing the SG applications in order to define a reasonable investment plan for grid modernization. The investment plan should include a list of practical projects and applications to be implemented, their cost, and realization timeframes. Such a plan should mainly rely on the available technical and financial resources in order to achieve the maximum guaranteed return on investment (ROI) with minimum risk. SG will benefit both grid operators and their customers through new technologies development and new applications. The investment on SG is influenced by the targeted power grid reliability, security, efficiency, and resilience. However, disturbances, faults, blackouts, equipment damages, outages, customer interruption, loss of data, and losses of resources over time can result in investment delays in this sector which will also negatively affect a nation's economic growth. SG achieves a significant level of ROI rate and may deliver the highest and long‐term returns to the electric operators and customers, as shown in Figure 1.23 [89].
The SG implementation is a continuous process that includes a set of technologies and additional features that can be added gradually to reach the most effective supply and demand balance in addition to reliable and clean electricity. A market study by Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), indicates that the investment level at utility‐scale in the power grid is between $17 and $24 billion per year over the next 20 years [36]. Figure 1.24 and Table 1.2 list the major components of the SG total cost [90].
Low refers to an EPRI low estimate of $ total SG costs; HIGH refers to EPRI high estimate of $ total SG costs. The wide variety in these estimates of the investment that is needed to realize the grid modernization reflects the uncertainty of the current industry modernization stage [91]. Again, these costs are modest when compared with the yield fruitful benefits from SG implementation.
Figure 1.23 SG investment. Adapted from [89].
Figure 1.24 SG costs Ref [90]. Reproduced with permission from EPRI (Electric Power Research Institute).
Table 1.2 Investment costs of a fully functioning SG ($ M) [90]. Reproduced with permission from EPRI (Electric Power Research Institute)
| Low | High | |
|---|---|---|
| Transmission and substations | 82 046 | 90 413 |
| Distribution system | 231 960 | 339 409 |
| Consumer Engagement | 23 672 | 46 368 |
| Total | 337 678 | 476 190 |
1.14 Organization of the Book
This book is comprised of 18 different chapters dealing with different SG related issues. Chapter 1 provides an elementary discussion on the fundamentals of the SG; its concept and definition, characteristics, and challenges. The chapter provides also the benefits of moving toward SG
Chapter 2 presents an overview of different renewable energy resources; their current status and also future opportunities, as well as the challenges of integrating them into the electricity grid and the operation in distributed mode as part of the SG.
Chapter 3 describes the power electronics technology for distributed generation integrated into the SG. An introduction to typical distributed generation systems with the power electronics is presented. Power electronics converters in grid‐connected AC systems and their control technologies are introduced. Then power electronics enabled autonomous AC power systems are discussed with the coordination and power management schemes. This chapter presents the basic control of power converters. Then autonomous DC power systems are illustrated. Finally, conclusions are drawn with future works.
Chapter 4 is dedicated to the impact of