85.See, for example, R. Haggard's, King Solomon's Mines, 1895; B. Mitford's, John Ames, 1900; C. Gilson's, In the Power of the Pygmies, Milford, 1919; P. White's Voss, 1957.
86.Fynn, The Diary, 317.
87.Fynn, The Diary, 267.
88.Watt, Febana, 94.
89.Ritter, Shaka Zulu, 272–3.
90.Ritter, Shaka Zulu, 274.
91.Ritter, Shaka Zulu, 268.
92.L. Grout, Zulu-land; or Life among the Zulu-Kafirs of Natal and Zulu-land, South Africa, London, 1862, 7 2 .
93.Grout, Zulu-land, 74.
94.Du Buisson, The White Man Cometh, 1.
95.Du Buisson, The White Man Cometh, 2.
96.Du Buisson, The White Man Cometh, 8–9, cf. 121.
97.See G. Lakoff and M. Johnson, Metaphors We Live By, Chicago, 1980, 117, 156–8: 'metaphors allow us to understand one domain of experience in terms of another . . . [They] can . . . define reality . . . through a coherent network of entailments that highlight some features of reality and hide others . . . Such "truths" may be true, of course, only relative to the reality defined by the metaphor.'
98.Bryant, Olden Times, 699.
99.Bryant, Olden Times, 168.
100.Bryant, Olden Times, 171.
101.Martin, 'British Images of the Zulu', 152–3. Cf. for example: H. Tracey, Zulu Paradox, Johannesburg, 1 9 4 8 , 21 ; Millin, The King of the Bastards, x; R. Niven, Nine Great Africans, London, 1964, 81; E.V. Walter, Terror and Resistance, New York, 1969, 127, and reprinted in F. Chalk and K. Jonassohn, eds, The History and Sociology of Genocide: Analyses and Case Studies, New Haven, 1990, 225. For Stalin, see M. de Villiers, White Tribe Dreaming, New York, 1987, 109; and Thompson, A History of South Africa, 85. J. M. Coetzee, Age of Iron, New York, 1990, 150 has his white heroine say to a black man: 'The Germans had comradeship, and the Japanese, and the Spartans. Shaka's impis, too, I am sure. Comradeship is nothing but a mystique of death, of killing and dying . . . '
102.Bryant, Olden Times, 319.
103.Fynn, The Diary, 76.
104.Fynn, The Diary, 58n.
105.For the high degree of inaccuracy contained in even eyewitness accounts, see R. Buckhout, 'Eyewitness Testimony', Scientific American, 231, (1974), 31–2; and A.J. Woodman, Rhetoric, 12–23.
106.Fynn, The Diary, 139.
107.For example, Isaacs, Travels and Adventures, vol. 1, 240.
108.Fynn, The Diary, 149–51.
109.Fynn, The Diary, 146.
110.Bryant, Olden Times, 641.
111.Bryant, Olden Times, 641.
112.H.N. Fairchild, The Noble Savage: A Study in Romantic Naturalism, New York, 1961, 92. In Rider Haggard's, Nada the Lily, London, 1895, 63 the narrator Mopo confronts Shaka:
Chaka drew near, and looked at the piled-up heaps of the slain and the cloud of dust that yet hung over them.
'There they lie, Mopo,' he said. 'There lie those who dared to prophesy falsely to the king! That was a good word of thine, Mopo, which taught me to set the snare for them; yet methought I saw thee start when Nobela, queen of the witch-doctresses, switched death on thee . . . '
Haggard weaves an envelope of occult spirituality, heroism, weapons with legendary names, and neo-lycanthropy which is more Nordic than Zulu in its mythic atmosphere, with an anti-mercantilism expressed as atavistic medieval chivalry. Within this, both the narrative and the direct speech are delivered in orotund archaisms, a simplified vocabulary and sentence structures, uncomplicated cause and effect, and stark contrast. Intellectualism, subtlety, and qualification are thereby excised.
113.G. Lukacs, The Historical Novel, London, 1962, 232.
114.Curiously, the only full works which pretend to be delivered in Shaka's voice are poems: Scully's successors are F.T. Prince, 'Chaka' in Poems, London, 1938, and S. Gray, The Assassination of Shaka by Mhlangane, Dingane and Mbopa on 22 December 1828 at Dukuza by which Act the Zulu Nation First Lost its Empire, Johannesburg, 1974.
115.E. Roberts, The Black Spear, London, 1950, 8; Schoeman, Pamphatha: The Beloved of King Shaka, Preface.
116.Holden, The Past and Future of the Kaffir Races, 7.
117.Holden, The Past and Future of the Kaffir Races, 2.
118.Holden, The Past and Future of the Kaffir Races, 33.
119.J.W. Colenso, Ten Weeks in Natal, Cambridge, 1855, xxxi.
120.Darlow, Tshaka, 48.
121.Ridgway, Stories from Zulu History, 90.
122.Niven, Nine Great Africans, 103.
123.E. Said, Orientalism, Harmondsworth, 1978, 14, 20.
124.C. L. Miller, 'Theories of Africans: The Question of Literary Anthropology', in Gates, 'Race', Writing and Difference, 282.
PART TWO
The South - Eastern Coastal Region
1.For a more detailed examination of Nathaniel Isaacs's account, for example, see D. Wylie, 'Autobiography as Alibi: History and Projection in Nathaniel Isaacs's Travels and Adventures in Eastern Africa (1836)', Current Writing, 3 (1991), 71–90.
2.Unlike some other disciplines, South African historiography has been generally dilatory in coming to a full awareness of its rhetorical practice. See, for instance, J. Clifford and G. E. Marcus, eds, Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography, Berkeley, 1986; and Paul Atkinson, The Ethnographic Imagination, London, 1990. For a rare South African foray, see C. Saunders, 'Our Past as Literature: Notes on Style in South African History in English', Kleio, 8 (1986) 46–55. For a methodology which could be fruitfully applied in this field, see A. J. Woodman, Rhetoric in Classical Historiography: Four Studies, Portland, 1988.
3.For example, the usual translation of 'Zulu' as 'sky' or 'heavens' can thus be negatively associated with overweening ambition (as in S. Kay, Travels and Researches in Kaffraria, London, 1833, 402), or positively read as 'a proud title, equalled only by the Chinese' (W. Holden, The Past and Future of the Kaffir Races, London, 1866, 8). Similarly, the place-name 'Bulawayo', negatively translated in most works as 'Place of Killing', alluding to Shaka's personal brutality, in a more approbratory account is rendered as ' "The Place of the Ill-Treated Man", for Shaka considered himself to have been much afflicted in former years by ill-treatment and persecution' (T. V. Bulpin, Shaka's Country: A Book of Zululand, Cape Town, 1952, 15). C. L. Miller, Blank Darkness: Africanist Discourse in French, Chicago, 1985, 10–11.
4.W. Wörger, 'Clothing Dry Bones: The Myth of Shaka', Journal of African Studies, 6, 3 (1979), 147. A pioneering but, through neglect, not yet seminal essay.
5.N. Isaacs, Travels and Adventures in Eastern Africa, vol. 1, reprint ed. by L. Hermann, Cape Town, 1936, 264.
6.Isaccs, Travels and Adventures, vol. 1, 45.
7.Isaacs, Travels and Adventures, vol.1, 269.
8.D.C.F. Moodie, The History of the Battles and Adventures of the British, the Boers, and the Zulus vol. 1, Cape Town, 1888, 395; H.F. Fynn, The Diary of Henry Francis Fynn, ed. by J. Stuart and D. McK. Malcolm, Pietermaritzburg, 1950, 12; J.D. Omer-Cooper, The Zulu Aftermath: