Introduction to Human Geography Using ArcGIS Online. J. Chris Carter

the characteristics of migrants, except for age. People in their late teens through mid-30s are disproportionately likely to migrate (figure 3.27). There are many reasons why young people are more likely to move. They are at an age for seeking new job or educational opportunities, they may marry and follow a spouse’s opportunities, they are less likely to be tied to a home mortgage, they are in better physical condition, and they often have a more adventurous mindset.

      Looking at global migrant stock, 72 percent are age 20 to 64, whereas only 58 percent of the total world population falls within this age range. This reflects young adults who migrate and stay abroad during their working years. Upon retirement, some return to their place of origin.

      Other than age, the characteristics of migrants can vary based on the place of origin and place of destination. While the sex ratio of migrants to the US is relatively even, in other cases the sex ratio of migrants can be highly skewed. Of those seeking asylum in Europe during 2014–15, fully 73 percent were men. Likewise, a disproportionate number of men migrate to the Middle East to work in the oil and construction industries. In 2015, 75 percent or more of immigrants living in the United Arab Emirates, Oman, and Qatar were men (figure 3.28). On the other end of the spectrum, women constitute a larger proportion of immigrants in parts of the former Soviet Union. Women represented close to 60 percent or more of the migrant population in Moldova, Latvia, Estonia, Kyrgyzstan, and Armenia, and Montenegro in 2015. This higher percentage of female immigrants occurred because the region’s growing middle class sought domestic help, such as nannies, nurses, and cleaners.

      Figure 3.27.US domestic migration by age, 2014. Young adults migrate much more than other age groups in the US. Data source: US Census.

      Figure 3.28.Construction workers in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. Not only does the UAE have many immigrant workers relative to the native population (as discussed in chapter 2), but over 75 percent of them are male. Photo by Draw. Stock photo ID: 416791933. Shutterstock.

      The education level of migrants also varies from place to place, depending on market needs and government immigration policies. Domestically, those with less than a high school education in the United States between 2010 and 2015 were the least likely to move from state to state. This is likely due to a lack of opportunity for those with limited education. Migrating away from one’s social network of friends and family with limited job prospects means that this group tends to stay close to home.

      Foreign immigrants to the United States between 2010 and 2015 differ from the overall US population in terms of education levels. As seen in figure 3.29, a disproportionate number had less than a high school education compared to the entire US population, and a disproportionate number had bachelor’s and graduate degrees. This reflects a demand for low skilled workers in sectors such as agriculture, construction, and domestic work as well as a demand for skilled workers in technology, health care, and other knowledge-based industries. The distribution of education varies by place of origin, with about 52 percent of recent Mexican immigrants to the United States in 2013 having less than a high school education and over 57 percent of Asians and 61 percent of Europeans having at least a bachelor’s degree.

      Figure 3.29.Education levels for the US population and foreign-born immigrants. Immigrants are found disproportionately at the high and low ends of the education spectrum. Data source: US Census.

      Immigration control and government policy

      Who migrates and where they migrate to is heavily influenced by government immigration policies. Even though a place may have strong pull forces, governments typically try to regulate the flow of immigrants for political and economic reasons.

      US immigration policy

      For most of the history of the United States, the government has enacted policies to regulate the number and/or characteristics of immigrants. Early legislation did not restrict the number of immigrants but rather focused on who could become a US citizen. The 1790 Naturalization Act limited citizenship to “free white persons” of “good moral character.” This was the first legislation that attempted to control the racial or ethnic makeup of the country by limiting who could become a citizen. Citizenship rules were changed with the Naturalization Act of 1870, in which African Americans were given citizenship rights along with whites. However, Asians remained excluded.

      The Immigration Act of 1875 placed the first restrictions on immigration, not just citizenship, by prohibiting criminals and forced Asian laborers. In 1882, the Chinese Exclusion Act was passed, and in 1917, immigration was banned from most other Asian countries. During this period, restrictions other than those based on race and ethnicity were put in place as well, including bans of anarchists, beggars, polygamists, “lunatics,” illiterates, prostitutes, and those with contagious diseases.

      From around 1880, immigration shifted away from Northern and Western Europe toward Southern and Eastern Europe (figure 3.30), prompting fears of a changing ethnic profile among many Americans. This resulted in the 1921 Emergency Quota Act, which placed numerical limits on immigration by creating quotas equal to 3 percent of the foreign-born population based on the 1910 census. It also placed a cap on the total number of immigrants per year. Asian immigration was not allowed. Even more restrictive quotas were enacted with the Immigration Act of 1924, which limited European immigration to 2 percent of the foreign-born population based on the 1890 census. It reduced the total number of annual immigrants and continued to bar Asian immigrants. These quotas were strongly biased in favor of Northern and Western European immigrants, who dominated the US population in the 1890 and 1910 censuses.