29. William Wells Brown, Clotel: Or, The President’s Daughter (1853; repr., New York: Penguin, 2003), 50.
30. Alan Brinkley, The Unfinished Nation: A Concise History of the American People: From 1865, 2nd. ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill College, 1996), 608. Alan Brinkley states that most historians agree that “the central characteristics of early 20th century progressivism” lasted until the early 1950s.
31. Brinkley, Unfinished Nation, 608.
32. Brinkley, Unfinished Nation, 582–84.
33. Brinkley, Unfinished Nation, 584.
34. David Blanke, The 1910s (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2002), 4.
35. Robert E. Weems, Desegregating the Dollar: African American Consumerism in the Twentieth Century (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 14.
36. Weems, Desegregating the Dollar, 14.
37. Monroe N. Work, Negro Year Book; an Annual Encyclopedia of the Negro 1912 (Tuskegee, AL: Negro Year Book Publishing Co., 1912), 13, 180, https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000055144 (accessed February 19, 2019). The Negro Year Book 1912 and 1921–1922, authored by Monroe N. Work, the Tuskegee Institute’s director of research, covered African Americans’ annual advancement in various fields, such as economics, education, and religion. In 1910, it was estimated that African Americans owned 220,000 farms and 500,000 homes, the total value of which was $700 million. The 1921–1922 edition shows that the number of home ownerships reached 12,000 in 1866; 506,590 in 1910; and over 600,000 in 1922. Monroe admires his people’s rapid progress: “This is a remarkable showing and has great significance for the future of the race. It is safe to say that any people starting with a handicap of poverty and ignorance, who can in fifty years, become owners of one-fourth of all the homes which they have, are making progress along those lines which make for a high degree of citizenship.”
38. Elizabeth Lindsay Davis and Sieglinde Lemke, Lifting as They Climb (1933; repr., New York: G K Hall, 1996), 43. Mary Church Terrell was an African American teacher and the first president of the National Association of Colored Women (NACW).
39. Paula J. Giddings, When and Where I Enter: The Impact of Black Women on Race and Sex in America (New York: W. Morrow, 1984), 187–89. Paula Giddings only briefly mentions Madam C. J. Walker, considering her to be the one who created “some consensus about their [African American women’s] physical selves.” Giddings, further intrigued by Wells, attempts to reevaluate Wells’s often-marginalized life and achievement in her prize-winning book, Ida: A Sword Among Lions (2008).
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40. Hazel V. Carby, Reconstructing Womanhood: The Emergence of the Afro-American Woman Novelist (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 17.
41. Deborah Gray White, Too Heavy a Load: Black Women in Defense of Themselves, 1894–1994 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1999), 16–18.
42. Karen Baker-Fletcher, A Singing Something: Anna J. Cooper & the Foundations of Womanist Theology (New York: Crossroad, 1994), 11–25.
43. Jacqueline Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work and the Family from Slavery to the Present (New York: Vintage, 1985), 163–64. Jacqueline Jones states that black women’s work was synonymous with domestic service in the early twentieth century. The total number of domestic workers in the three largest cities—New York, Chicago, and Philadelphia—declined by about 25% between 1910 and 1920, but the proportion of black women in this occupational category increased by 10% to 15%.
44. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The German Ideology, ed. Roy Pascal (1939; repr., Mansfield Centre, CT: Martino Publishing, 2011), 7.
45. Marx and Engels, German Ideology, 15.
46. Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Phenomenology of Perception, trans. Colin Smith, 2nd ed. (1945; repr., London: Routledge, 2002), 82–83.
47. Margo DeMello, Body Studies: An Introduction (New York: Routledge, 2014), 19.
48. Judith Butler, introduction to Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of “Sex” (1993; repr., New York: Routledge, 2011), xi–xiv.
49. Joan Jacobs Brumberg, Fasting Girls: The History of Anorexia Nervosa (1988; repr., New York: Vintage, 2000), 5.
50. Susan Bordo, Unbearable Weight: Feminism, Western Culture, and the Body, 2nd ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004), 3.
51. Emily Martin, The Woman in the Body: A Cultural Analysis of Reproduction, rev. ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 2001), xi.
52. Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time, 2nd ed. (1944; repr., Boston: Beacon Press, 2001), 48.
53. Polanyi, Great Transformation, 60.
54. National Women’s Business Council (NWBC Council), “Research on Black Women Entrepreneurs: Past and Present Conditions of Black Women’s Business Ownership,” 2016, 13–16, https://www.nwbc.gov/2016/10/07/research-on-black-women-entrepreneurs-past-and-present-conditions-of-black-womens-business-ownership/ (accessed May 31, 2019). According to the research on black women entrepreneurs, the