Apart from the battle of Shaqḥab, he took part in some other expeditions with the Mamluk authorities, and also undertook a few expeditions without them.20
2. Opposition of rival ‘ulamā’
Because of his brilliant performance on the battlefield and his radical thinking, Ibn Taimīyah’s fame spread throughout the realm, and he became a highly distinguished celebrity. This made a number of jurists jealous. Ibn Kathīr has pointed out this fact, saying that: ‘A group of jurisprudents were jealous of Ibn Taimīyah, as he had a place in the court of the Sultan and people paid heed to him. To enjoin good and forbid evil was his vocation, and because of this he became very popular among the people. His followers were countless. His religious zeal, learning and actions made them jealous of him.’21
(a) Visit to Cairo and the first imprisonment
Ibn Taimīyah’s opponents complained against him in the Sultan’s court in Egypt, and certain baseless charges were levelled against him. He was summoned by the Sultan and arrived in Cairo on 7 April, 1306. Ibn Taimīyah was accused of anthropomorphism. He was not given a proper chance to clarify his position and was put into prison.22 He remained in the citadel of Cairo for nearly a year and a half. He was released on 25 September, 1307.
(b) Second imprisonment
After his release from jail, Ibn Taimīyah decided to stay for some days in Cairo to try to reform the creed of the people and their way of life.23 He criticized bitterly the un-Islamic ideas of Sufism and continued to denounce all those innovations (bid‘āt) which he regarded as heretical.
Meanwhile another Sultan, Baibars al-Jāshankīr, who was strongly pro-Sufis had taken power in Egypt. Since a number of Ibn Taimīyah’s supporters were present in Cairo, he was on this occasion exiled to Alexandria and put under house arrest. This exile lasted seven months. When Nāṣir Muḥammad bin Qalāwūn was restored to the throne on 4 March, 1310, he recalled Ibn Taimīyah and received him in audience at Cairo.24
On his return to Cairo Ibn Taimīyah resumed his reformist activities, remaining there for about three years. Sultan Muḥammad bin Qalāwūn often consulted him. Ibn Taimīyah also advised the Sultan privately.25
(c) Return to Syria and the third imprisonment
In 1313 a new Mongol threat appeared. The Sultan decided to face the Mongols at the Syrian border. People remembered the heroic part Ibn Taimīyah had played in the earlier battle and, though he was now over fifty, the Sultan sent for him to come to Damascus on 28 February, 1313. However, the Mongols retreated without a fight. Ibn Taimīyah now concentrated his attention on academic and social problems. He organized his teaching, as ever more people sought his guidance in their everyday life. His knowledge and thinking now became broader and more concrete. He sometimes issued a fatwā or legal ruling, even against the verdicts of the four famous schools of jurisprudence.26 One such legal ruling was on divorce. In 1318, in a letter, the Sultan forbade him to issue any fatwā on divorce which was contrary to the prevailing Hanbalite doctrine. Ibn Taimīyah held the view that a triple utterance of the repudiation formula at the same time was to be considered as only one utterance, and that any repudiation obtained under duress was invalid. Ibn Taimīyah, accused of disobeying the Sultan’s order, was condemned to prison. He remained in the citadel at Damascus for five months and eighteen days,27 until his release on 9 February, 1321 by the decree of Sultan Nāṣir.
(d) The fourth and last imprisonment
Ibn Taimīyah’s last imprisonment began on 13 July, 1326 and lasted until his death. His opponents dug up an old fatwā, related to tomb visits, given by him some seventeen years before which could be provocatively interpreted. In his treatise on the subject (Risālah Ziyārah al-Qubūr) Ibn Taimīyah had questioned the legality of visiting tombs, even the tomb of the Prophet.28 His opponents distorted the sense and context of this fatwā to make it objectionable in the eyes of the public and the Sultan. A great dispute arose and Ibn Taimīyah was imprisoned in the citadel of Damascus along with some of his pupils including Ibn al-Qayyim.29
(e) His last days
While in prison, Ibn Taimīyah spent all his time teaching and writing. Many of his works were produced in this period. During his detention the Maliki qāḍī, al-Ikhnā’ī, wrote a booklet against Ibn Taimīyah’s treatise on tomb visits. From inside prison Ibn Taimīyah wrote an article criticizing the Qāḍī in which he proved him to be ignorant and incompetent and unsuitable for the post of judge. This article was widely circulated and al-Ikhnā’ī complained to the Sultan. Ibn Taimīyah was then, in 1328, deprived of all means of writing, his pen and papers taken away.30
But this did not stop Ibn Taimīyah from writing; he wrote many letters and booklets with coal.31 He never complained to anybody about his persecution. Only when all reading and writing materials were taken away from him, did he say: ‘Now they really have put me into prison.’ He breathed his last on 26 September, 1328 (20 Dhu’l-Qa‘dah 728 AH) having endured harsh conditions for five months. The whole country mourned. Schools, shops, hotels and markets were closed to mark his death. His burial was attended by great numbers of Damascans: eye-witnesses confirm that, excepting some invalids, all turned out for his funeral prayer, both those who had been for him and those against.32 This is a clear testimony of his place among the people, of their appreciation of his sacrifices for public purposes and just cause. Including the two years and three months of his last imprisonment, Ibn Taimīyah spent about five years in different prisons.
In the Islamic perspective, ‘reform’ is understood quite differently than in Christian terminology. In Islam, ‘reform’ means purification of the original Islamic teachings, and the removal of un-Islamic new practices (bid‘āt) and misconceptions. In this sense of the word, Ibn Taimīyah was a great reformer.
According to ‘Allāmah Shiblī Nu’mānī, the highest reformer is one who revolutionizes religion or politics; who does not merely follow others, but expounds his own thoughts, who bears hardships, makes sacrifices and does not hesitate even to lay down his life for that cause.33 Each of these essential qualities of a reformer is found in Ibn Taimīyah.
1. The main aspects of his reforms
The most important elements of Ibn Taimīyah’s reforms were: (a) to bring about a revolution against un-Islamic practices (bid‘āt) that had crept into Islam and to emphasize the concept of Tawḥīd with all its implications; (b) a return to the fundamental priorities of Islam and its original spirit, instead of disputing over secondary and non-fundamental problems; and (c) serving the public good through such state intervention in economic life as promotes justice and security and prevents exploitation and selfishness.34 He devoted all his energies to these activities throughout his life.
By the thirteenth century, the pure sweet spring of Islam had become muddied – on the one hand by un-Islamic customs and rites and false innovations such as tomb worship; on the other hand, by certain forms