One of the chief foundations of ādāb al-Islām is morality, the cornerstone of a nation’s self-confidence and strength, as surely as corruption and immorality are one of the main causes of a nation’s decline and disintegration. The insistence on morality often gives to the Islamic way of life an appearance of rigidity or puritanism; as one writer has noted: ‘. ..in regard to certain aspects of morality, Islam is more rigid and more puritan than certain other systems of life in our times.’6 But given the importance of morality to the health of a nation, normative Islam is surely right to block all ways leading to corruption, such as illicit sex and luxurious living. Material comforts should not be at the expense of human virtues, individual and collective; politics also (considered, in non-Islamic thought, as immoral or even amoral) must conform to the goals of Islam, the development of human character, the humanity of man.
The ideal of the humanity of man is grounded in the concept of al-‘amāl al-Ṣāliḥ or virtuous deeds. The term extends beyond what is normally understood as the ‘religious’ domain and covers a wide range of human activities (in relation to others, to the animate and inanimate environment) sanctioned within Islamic faith and law. The Prophet’s life provides many concrete instances: to act justly between two people, to help a man onto his mount, to help load his belongings, to speak good words, to remove nuisances from paths or roads, to give food and water to stray dogs and cats, to be forward in greeting others, to visit relatives, etc.; even the act of making love within marriage is valued as a good deed. The most inclusive characteristics of the ideal Muslim personality are humility, modesty and simplicity or naturalness (lack of affectation). Pride and arrogance in any aspect of conduct are not accepted, as no individual is superior to another except in his degree of faith and contribution of good deeds.
Thus, clothes that show haughtiness, that flaunt social status, are forbidden. Manners in eating should demonstrate humility before the occasion as well as respect for the meal: leaning on a cushion while eating is forbidden. Sitting on the floor when eating is a sign of humility, and therefore recommended. Furnishings should show modesty and restraint; for example, the bed should not be set too high above the ground. Gait in walking, manner of address in greeting and in speech generally, should avoid any taint of arrogance.
Islam requires and demands moderation and naturalness in all aspects of life, worldly and religious. Extremism, exaggeration, eccentricity and affectation, caprice and complicatedness are rejected. The insistence on a certain informality in ādāb al-Islām is intended to ease their use by the vast majority of the members of the Muslim society. Naturalness of manners is valued as a means of relieving social tension, of enabling and strengthening social relations.
Western ‘etiquette’ originated in the Royal courts of Europe, and was invented to meet ‘the requirement of behaviour in courts and among aristocrats everywhere’.7 The meaning of etiquette was weakened when it spread to all classes. To this day Western etiquette varies from group to group. Members of so-called ‘high society’ observe more complicated and rigid forms of etiquette than the less well-to-do. This comes out of and helps sustain the class system.
Ādāb al-Islām, however, are different. They are not designed to divide society according to social classes. The rules, revealed through the Qur’ān and the Sunnah, were not formulated by certain groups, i.e. the rich and powerful in order to subdue or distance other groups. Islam attaches great importance to the adherence of the whole of Muslim society to its ādāb. It does not consider these manners as the privilege or preserve of a certain group, but as a privilege open to every member of the Muslim society. A variety of etiquette levels is non-existent in Islam.
The function of ādāb al-Islām in unifying Muslim communities, as well as being an expression of their unity, is clear. But ādāb al-Islām are not just about coherence or consistency of behaviour; they are about coherence or consistency of right behaviour. The notion of ‘proper’ conduct may not, in Islam, be separated from the notion of ‘good’ deeds, nor from ‘faith’ and ‘devotion’. Faith and good deeds are both necessary in this world for a prosperous and ideal society in which there is mutual and shared responsibility. And in the Hereafter, faith and good deeds are the necessary conditions for forgiveness and salvation, for admission to Paradise. A large number of verses in the Qur’ān link faith and good deeds as defining characteristics of a true Muslim.
In Islam, what is ‘central’ and ‘essential’ is determined by its broad relation to the goals of Islam, among which is the civilization or advancement of human society, the promotion of happiness and prosperity, material as well as moral. On examination, the prescriptions and prohibitions which form part of Islamic teachings will be seen to be not arbitrary decrees but an ordered system of commandments whose purpose (besides testing man’s obedience and loyalty to God) is the advancement of man, according to a safe, proper and perfect course, at the individual, family and societal levels. The details of ādāb al-Islām are not meaningless formalities, unwelcome to the individual because they are unrelated to the actual needs of his personal or social life. On the contrary, they directly address the different basic functions that concern all members of society at almost every moment of their lives. They are intended to concentrate attention on the central and essential, to rescue man from the peripheral and distracting. They distinguish means from ends and help individual and community to administer personal and collective resources effectively. It may be helpful to illustrate this general point by listing the basic human needs and functions as they are viewed within the perspective of ādāb al-Islām:
1. Clothes are primarily intended to protect the wearer against the climate, and to conceal parts of the body.
2. The purpose of housing is to provide shelter from the climate and to secure necessary privacy and safety.
3. Cleanliness, as well as protecting man from disease, expresses his humanity.
4. Adornment, make-up, etc. are a woman’s means to look attractive and pleasant before her husband.
5. Speech is important as a means of communication, serving in the essential functions of exchange and relationship with other people, such as buying, selling, etc.
6. Humour reduces tension and relaxes people at a gathering.
7. Gifts are meant to express goodwill and to foster good relations with others.
8. Inviting others to eat, sharing food with others, makes and strengthens social bonds.
9. Social relations themselves are valued because they prevent or limit isolation of the individual. Social customs are valued because they create stability and harmony in social relations.
10. Graves are primarily for