12 John Stuart Mill, Considerations on Representative Government, Chicago: Gateway, 1962, 303. Regarding Mill and the national question, see also Hans Kohn, Prophets and Peoples: Studies in Nineteenth-Century Nationalism, New York: Macmillan, 1946, 11–42.
13 See “What Is a Nation?” available at www.cooper.edu/humanities/core/hss3/e_renan.html.
14 For more on Marxists and the nation, see Horace Davis, Nationalism and Socialism: Marxist and Labor Theories of Nationalism to 1917, New York: Monthly Review Press, 1967; and Ephraim Nimni, Marxism and Nationalism: Theoretical Origins of a Political Crisis, London: Pluto Press, 1991.
15 Quoted in G. Haupt, M. Lowy, and C. Weil, Les Marxistes et la question nationale, 1848–1914, Paris: Maspero, 1974, 254.
16 Joseph Stalin, Marxism and the National Question, first published in Prosveshcheniye 3–5 (1913).
17 On the Marxist approach to the issue of nationalism, see also John Breuilly, Nationalism and the State, New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1982, 21–8.
18 Karl W. Deutsch, Nationalism and Social Communication, New York: MIT Press, 1953.
19 Karl W. Deutsch, Nationalism and Its Alternatives, New York: A. A. Knopf, 1969.
20 Anderson, Imagined Communities, 6.
21 Gellner, Nations and Nationalism, 7.
22 See the following largely supportive but critical essay collection: John A. Hall (ed.), e State of the Nation: Ernest Gellner and the Theory of Nationalism, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
23 is has been done while combining other cultural elements, and with a high degree of decentralization and citizen involvement in politics. On the Swiss example, see Hans Kohn’s old book, Nationalism and Liberty: The Swiss Example, London: Allen & Unwin, 1956; and also the new work of Oliver Zimmer, A Contested Nation: History, Memory and Nationalism in Switzerland, 1761–1891, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
24 Gellner, Nations and Nationalism, 55.
25 Ibid, 1.
26 Eric Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism since 1780, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992, 10–11.
27 For a further discussion on the later nationalism in England, see Krisham Kumar, e Making of English National Identity, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
28 On nationalism outside the European sphere, see the two books by Partha Chatterjee, Nationalist ought and the Colonial World, Tokyo: Zed Books, 1986; e Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993.
29 Carlton J. H. Hayes, “Nationalism as a Religion,” in Essays on Nationalism, New York: Russell, [1926] 1966, 93–125; and Nationalism: A Religion, New York: Macmillan, 1960.
30 Anderson, Imagined Communities, 10–12.
31The self-construction of nations is not the same as the self-creation of a modern working class, but the dismantling of the essentialist approach to the two “things”—nation and class—has much in common. See E. P. Thompson, e Making of the English Working Class, London: Penguin, [1963] 2002.
32 On his fascinating life and the development of his thought, see Ken Wolf, “Hans Kohn’s Liberal Nationalism: The Historian as Prophet,” Journal of the History of the Ideas 37:4 (1976), 651–72.
33 Hans Kohn, e Idea of Nationalism, New York: Collier Books, [1944] 1967. His early, pioneering work, A History of Nationalism in the East, New York: Harcourt, 1929, remains notable.
34 See also Hans Kohn, Nationalism, Its Meaning and History, Princeton: Van Nostrand, 1955, 9–90; e Mind of Germany: The Education of a Nation, London: Macmillan, 1965; and Hans Kohn and Daniel Walden, Readings in American Nationalism, New York: Van Nostrand, 1970, 1–10.
35 See Taras Kuzio, “The Myth of the Civic State: a Critical Survey of Hans Kohn’s Framework for Understanding Nationalism,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 25:1 (2002), 20–39.
36 On nationalism in the US, see the interesting article by Susan-Mary Grant, “Making History: Myth and the Construction of American Nationhood,” in Myths and Nationhood, G. Hoskin and G. Schöpflin (eds.), New York: Routledge, 1997, 88–106.
37 On the consciousness that France is not “Gaul’s descendant,” see the testimony of Ernest Lavisse, the “pedagogic father” of French national historiography, in the book of Claude Nicolet, La Fabrique d’une nation: La France entre Rome et les Germains, Paris: Perrin, 2003, 278–80.
38 On the nature of Polish nationalism, see Brian Porter, When Nationalism Began to Hate: Imagining Modern Politics in Nineteenth-Century Poland, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
39 On nationalism in the Balkans and elsewhere at the end of the twentieth century, see the interesting book by Michael Ignatieff, Blood and Belonging: Journeys in the New Nationalism, New York: Farrar, 1993.
40Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism since 1780, 101–130.
41See Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992; and also her article “Nationalism in Western and Eastern Europe Compared,” in Can Europe Work? Germany and the Reconstruction of Postcommunist Societies, S. E. Hanson and W. Spohn (eds.), Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1995, 15–23.
42Gellner, Nations and Nationalism, 100.
43Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992, 5–11. Brubaker later rejected the conceptual distinction between civil and ethnic nationalism, preferring to distinguish between “state-framed” and “counter-state” nationalism. See “The Manichean Myth: Rethinking the Distinction Between ‘Civic’ and ‘Ethnic’ Nationalism,” in Hanspeter Kries, et al. (eds.), Nation and National Identity: The European Experience in Perspective, Zürich: Rüegger, 1999, 55–71.
44Hayes, Essays on Nationalism, 110.
45Tom Nairn, e Break-Up of Britain: Crisis and Neo-Nationalism, London: New Left Books, 1977, 340.
46Elie Kedourie’s classic, Nationalism (London: Hutchinson, 1960), embodies this approach.
47Antonio Gramsci, “The Formation of Intellectuals,” in e Modern Prince and Other Writings, New York: International Publishers, 1957, 118.
48Gellner, Nations and Nationalism, 11.
49Anderson, Imagined Communities, 15–16.
50Gramsci, e Modern Prince and Other Writings, 125.
51Actually Gramsci applied the term “prince” to a political organism seeking to seize the state structure in the name of the proletariat. I apply here the concept to the entire state apparatus.
52Raymond Aron, Les Désillusions du progrès: Essai sur la dialectique de la modernité, Paris: Calmann-Lévy, 1969, 90.
53In the ancient Jewish world, it was mostly the priesthood that demarcated its identity by blood, and in the late Middle Ages it was, strangely, the Spanish Inquisition.
54See Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, London: Oxford University Press, 1946.
55On the rise and consolidation of national languages, see Michael Billing, Banal Nationalism,