Within Islamic jurisprudence, jihad is usually taken to mean military exertion against non-Muslim combatants in the defense or expansion of the Ummah. Others have argued that the goal of Jihad is global conquest. Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against terrorists, criminal groups, rebels, apostates, and leaders or states that oppress Muslims or hamper proselytizing efforts.
Under most circumstances and for most Muslims, jihad is a collective duty (Fard Kifaya): Its performance by some individuals exempts the others. For most Shi’as, offensive jihad can only be declared by a divinely appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such is suspended since Muhammad al-Mahdi’s occultation in 868 AD.
Muhammad (610-632): Muhammad (570–June 8, 632) was a trader later becoming a religious, political, and military leader. However, Muslims do not view Muhammad as the creator of Islam, but instead regard him as the last messenger of God, through which the Qur’an was revealed. Muslims view Muhammad as the restorer of the original, uncorrupted monotheistic faith of Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets.
For the last 22 years of his life, beginning at age 40 in 610 CE, Muhammad started receiving revelations that he believed to be from God. The content of these revelations, known as the Qur’an, was memorized and recorded by his companions. During this time, Muhammad preached to the people of Mecca, imploring them to abandon polytheism. After 12 years of preaching, Muhammad and the Muslims performed the Hijah (“emigration”) to the city of Medina (formerly known as Yathrib) and the Meccan migrants (Muhajirun), Muhammad established his political and religious authority. By 630 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless Conquest of Mecca, and by the time of his death in 632 (at the age of 63) he untied the tribes of Arabia into a single religious polity.
Rise of the caliphate and civil war (632–750):
With Muhammad’s death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr, who was Muhammad’s companion and close friend. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the First Caliph.
• The Rashidun (Rightly-Guided Caliphs): Abu Bakr’s death in 634 resulted in the succession of Umar ibn al-Khattab as the caliph, followed by Uthman ibn al-Affan, Ali ibn Abi Talib and Hasan ibn Ali. The first 4 caliphs are known as al-khulafa’ ar-rāshidūn (“Rightly Guided Caliphs”). Under them, the territory under Muslim rule expanded deeply into Persian and Byzantine territories. When Umar was assassinated in 644, the election of Uthman as successor was met with increasing opposition. In 656, Uthman was also killed, and Ali assumed the position of caliph. After fighting off opposition in the first civil war (the “First Fitna”), Ali was assassinated by Kharijites in 661. Following this, Mu’awiyah seized power and began the Umayyad dynasty, with its capital in Damascus.
Islamic Accomplishments:
Islamic civilization flourished in what is sometimes referred to as the “Islamic Golden Age”. Public hospitals established during this time, are considered “the first hospitals” in the modern sense of the word, and issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors of medicine. The Guinness World Records recognizes the University of Al Karaouine, founded in 859, as the world’s older degree-granting university. An important pioneer in this, Ibn al-Haytham is regarded as the father of the modern scientific method and often referred to as the “world’s first true scientist.” Discoveries include gathering the data used by Copernicus for his heliocentric conclusions and Al-Jahiz’s proposal of the theory of natural selection. Rumi wrote some of the finest Persian poetry and is still one of the best selling poets in America. Legal institutions introduced include the trust and charitable trust (Waqf).
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ISLAMIC BIOGRAPHIES IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER:
Abbas ibn Firnas (810–887): An Andalusian scientist, musician and inventor. He developed a clear glass used in drinking vessels, and lenses used for magnification and the improvement of vision. He had a room in his house where the sky was simulated, including the motion of planets, stars and weather complete with clouds, thunder and lightning. He is most well known for reportedly surviving an attempt at controlled flight.
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Abbas I (Abbas the Great 1557-1629): Shah of Persia (1587-1628), of the Safavid dynasty. In 1597 he ended the raids of the Uzbeks, and subsequently (1603-23) he conquered extensive territories from the Turks. He maintained diplomatic contacts with Europe, and with English aid he took (1622) Hormoz from the Portuguese and founded what is now the port of Bandar Abbas. At his capital at Esfahan, he erected many palaces, mosques, and gardens and did much to improve public works in Persia.
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Abbas II (Abbas Hilmi, 1874-1944): Last khedive of Egypt (1892-1914): son and successor of Tewfik Pasha. Nominally, he ruled in subordination to the Ottoman Empire, but in fact Egypt was controlled by the British resident-at first Lord Cromer, and later Lord Kitchener. Although he resisted complete British rule, Abbas met with little success; in 1899 he was forced to admit the British claim to rule jointly with Egypt over Sudan. When Turkey joined the Central Powers in World War I, Britain declared Egypt a British protectorate and deposed Abbas. He lived thereafter in Switzerland, where he died. He wrote The Anglo-Egyptian Settlement (1930).
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Abbas, Mahmud (1935- ): Palestinian politician; prime minister of Palestinian Authority, 2003 — born of middle class parents in Safad, Palestine, he and his family fled to Syria during the 1948-49 Arab Israeli war. Abbas graduated in law at Damascus University and then earned a doctorate in history at the Oriental College, Moscow. On 1965 he was one of the founder members of Fatah. Three years later, he was elected a member of the Palestine National Council.
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Abd Al-Azir ibn Saud (1880-1953): Muhammad ibn Saud, the charismatic founder of the Saudi dynasty (also known as the House of Saud), was born around 1703. After succeeding his father as the ruler of the oasis principality of Diriyyah at the age of forty, he formed an alliance with Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, the renowned Islamic scholar and reformer of Arabia, in 1744 and thereby laid the foundations of the modern Saudi State. The two Muhammads thus joined together to create a formidable politico-religious alliance in Arabia. To further strengthen their relationship, Muhammad ibn Saud married Ibn Abd al-Wahhab’s daughter in 1744. The first Saudi State was established around 1744 and it endured until it was destroyed in 1818 by the forces of Muhammad Ali Pasha, the powerful Ottoman viceroy of Egypt. Modeled on the first Saudi State, another politico-religious order then emerged in Arabia in 1824, but incessant internal strife and political rivalry led to its disintegration in 1891. However, the credit for laying the foundations of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, the modern Saudi State, must go to Abd al-Aziz ibn Saud, who was undoubtedly one of the most charismatic and influential Arab leaders of modern times.
Abd al-Aziz ibn Abd al-Rahman ibn Faisal al-Saud, known as Ibn Saud for short, was born in Riyadh, the capital of modern Saudi Arabia, but he spent his early years in Kuwait. Exasperated by his battles with his brothers, Abd al-Rahman ibn Faisal was eventually forced to leave Arabia in 1891 after Riyadh was captured by Muhammad ibn Rashid, the ruler of Najd and a political rival of the al-Sauf family. During his exile in Kuwait, however, he maintained close contact with his supporters back home, hoping one day to return to his native Riyadh in triumph. Ibn Saud received training in all aspects of desert warfare and soon became an expert in launching military raids. His years of training in military strategy and desert warfare equipped him with much-needed skills and experience to organize and launch the military expeditions to reclaim his ancestral homeland from his rivals.
Even after Kuwait became a British protectorate in 1899, they struggled to protect their political and economic interests in the region from German and French encroachment. Following the death of the charismatic Rashidi