43. Parent, Foul Means, 249–57. 262.
44. Parent, Foul Means, 260–61; Bradley Chapin, Criminal Justice in Colonial America, 1606–1660 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2010), 48; and Jeffrey K. Sawyer, “‘Benefit of Clergy’ in Maryland and Virginia, The American Journal of Legal History 34 (January 1990): 46–68.
45. Parent, Foul Means, 258–60.
46. Anthony Galvin quoted in Parent, Foul Means, 263. [Spelling modernized.]
47. For a critique of this “Whig” view of history, see William A. Pettigrew, Freedom’s Debt: The Royal African Company and the Politics of the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1672–1752 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press for the Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture, 2013), 3–4, 217–18.
48. Holly Brewer, By Birth or Consent: Children, Law, and the Anglo-American Revolution in Authority (Published for the Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture, Williamsburg, Virginia, 2005), 352–53.
49. Pettigrew, Freedom’s Debt, 217.
50. Pettigrew, Freedom’s Debt, 2–5
51. Alan J. Singer, New York and Slavery: Time to Teach the Truth (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2008), 53; Paul Axel-Lute, “The Law of Slavery in New Jersey: An Annotated Bibliography,” The New Jersey Digital Legal Library, (first published January 2005 last revised April 2013) http://njlegallib.rutgers.edu/slavery/bibliog.html (accessed February 27, 2014).
52. The rationale for the curse was that Canaan’s father (Ham) had seen a drunken Noah unclothed. It is unclear, however, why Ham himself received no punishment, why three of the four sons of Ham escaped punishment, or why there was no penalty for Noah, whom the text credits with the first case of drunkenness. For a discussion of the 9th century Muslim roots of the Ham argument and its possible sources see Bernard Lewis, Race and Slavery in the Middle East: an Historical Enquiry. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 123–25. For a discussion of English use of the text see Goetz, Baptism of Early Virginia, 13–31.
53. Pettigrew, Freedom’s Debt, 214.
54. Patricia U. Bonomi and Peter R. Eisenstadt, “Church Adherence in the Eighteenth-century British American Colonies,” William and Mary Quarterly (3d series) 39 (April 1982): 245–86.
55. Bonomi and Eisenstadt, ”Church Adherence,” 261.
56. Robert Currie, Alan Gilbert, and Lee Horsley, Churches and Churchgoers: Patterns of Church Growth in the British Isles since 1700 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977), 22.
57. Pat Bonomi noted that by the middle of the eighteenth century Baptist and Presbyterian authors became critics of the behavior of Church of England clergy. See Patricia U. Bonomi, Under the Cope of Heaven: Religion, Society, and Politics in Colonial America, updated version (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), 45.
58. For a discussion of nineteenth-century Bishop William Meade’s evangelical critique of the eighteenth century see Upton, Holy Things and Profane, xviii-xix. For a nineteenth-century Tractarian critique see Ferdinand C. Ewer, Catholicity in its Relationship to Protestantism and Romanism (New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1878), 165.
59. See, for example, Rhys Isaac, The Transformation of Virginia, 1740–1790 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press for the Institute of Early American History and Culture, 1982), 189–92.
60. Bonomi, Under the Cope of Heaven, 45.
61. Nelson, Blessed Company, 155.
62. Charles Bolton, Southern Anglicanism: the Church of England in Colonial South Carolina (Westport, Connecticut: ABC-Clio, 1987), 94–97.
63. Nelson noted that others have calculated a 10.5 percentage of “scandalous” behavior among Church of England clergy in South Carolina (1696–1775) and a 3 percent rate of “scandalous episodes” among Congregationalists in New England (1680–1740). Nelson cautioned, however, that “in the absence of valid comparative studies—studies employing uniform definitions, measuring similar conduct, and taking into account the differences in cultural context—no satisfactory comparative conclusions can be hazarded.” See Nelson, Blessed Company, 155–56. The most comprehensive study to date about contemporary behavior of clergy in the United States in any denomination is a John Jay College study of the behavior of Roman Catholic clergy over a fifty year period. It found a uniform “3 to 6 percent of the priests in ministry per diocese accused of sexual abuse against a minor between the years of 1950 and 2002.” The study did not, however, cover other causes of complaint. See Karen J. Terry, et al., “The Causes and Context of Sexual Abuse of Minors by Catholic Priests in the United States, 1950–2010: A Report Presented to the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops by the John Jay College Research Team” (2011), 27.
64. Bonomi, Under the Cope of Heaven, 45.
65. Nelson, Blessed Company, 155.
66. Grace Soward may have served as sexton before 1730. The published version of the vestry book begins with 1729 minutes in which the name of the sexton is illegible. Ann Soward first appears as Grace’s replacement in the minutes of 1764. See C. C. Chamberlayne, ed., The Vestry Book of Stratton Major Parish, King and Queen County, Virginia, 1729–1783 (Richmond: the Library Board, 1931), 3, 6, 80, 145, 148, 151.
67. In old age, however, the Sowards became wards of the parish. See Chamberlayne, ed., Vestry Book of Stratton Major Parish, 24, 26, 35, 41, 51, 70, 76, 141, 148, 150, 153, 156, and 171.
68. Note, for example, the