3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 Locations of potential cultivation areas for non‐edible oils.
4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 Ultrastructure of microalgae.Figure 4.2 Lipid biosynthesis in microalgae.
5 Chapter 5Scheme 5.1 Transesterification of vegetable oil (triglyceride) to biodiesel ...Scheme 5.2 Mechanism of acid‐catalyzed reaction of triglyceride.Scheme 5.3 Mechanism of base‐catalyzed reaction of triglyceride.Scheme 5.4 Esterification of free fatty acid.Scheme 5.5 Mechanism of acid‐catalyzed esterification of free fatty acid to ...Figure 5.1 Representation of biodiesel production process using homogeneous ...
6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Transesterification process for biodiesel production.Figure 6.2 Potential materials for alkaline earth metal oxide synthesis.Figure 6.3 Transesterification mechanism catalyzed by basic metal oxide.Figure 6.4 Schematic of SO4 2–/Fe–Al–TiO2 catalyst synthesis.Figure 6.5 Preparation of SO3H@ZnO–TiO2–ICG.Figure 6.6 Transesterification mechanism catalyzed by acid catalyst.
7 Chapter 7Scheme 7.1 Proposed mechanism for CaO/Al2O3‐catalyzed synthesis of biodiesel...Figure 7.1 TEM images of (a) ZnO/zeolite and (b) PbO/zeolite.Figure 7.2 Biochar supporting different metal and metal oxides.Figure 7.3 SEM analysis of (a) biochar, (b) 5 % of Ca loaded, (c, e, f) 10% ...Figure 7.4 FTIR spectrum of supported catalyst recovered at the end of third...Figure 7.5 (a) Cage type meso MOFs, (b) channel type meso MFOs, (c) chiral m...Figure 7.6 Strongly acidic site in Zr‐doped hydrated MOF (Ha is involved in ...Figure 7.7 TEM images of Au@Fe3O4 nanoparticles showing quasispherical Fe3O4
8 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Transesterification and esterification reactions.Figure 8.2 Summary of catalyst types currently being researched.Figure 8.3 A summary showing the diverse uses for MMO catalysts.Figure 8.4 Diagram of surface structures for acidic, basic, and bifunctional...
9 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 Different feedstock used in FAME HVO biodiesel production.Figure 9.2 Year‐wise global production of biodiesel (FAME and HVO).Figure 9.3 Schematic representation of overall biodiesel production process....Figure 9.4 The general chemical reaction showing transesterification of trig...Figure 9.5 The different conventional catalysts used in biodiesel production...Figure 9.6 Schematic illustration of different nanocatalysts used in biodies...
10 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 Comparison of esterification behavior of free fatty acids (FFA) ...Figure 10.2 Variation of water concentration in effluent from column packed ...Figure 10.3 Time courses of concentrations of (a) free fatty acids and (b) f...Figure 10.4 Phase conditions of each reaction system: (a) two‐phase system w...Figure 10.5 Photographs of phase conditions of methanol/triglyceride mixture...Figure 10.6 Comparison of transesterification behavior of triglyceride (TG) ...Figure 10.7 Comparison of catalytic activity for triglyceride transesterific...
11 Chapter 11Scheme 11.1 Biodiesel production via transesterification and esterification....Figure 11.1 CO2‐TPD profile for pure ZrO2 (a), modified catalyst with Mg/Zr ...Figure 11.2 Sonochemical setup for CaO dispersion on MCM‐41.Figure 11.3 EDX analysis of sono‐enhanced CaO‐dispersed over Zr‐doped MCM‐41...Figure 11.4 Schematic representation of the synthesis of lysine/HPA catalyst...Figure 11.5 TEM micrographs (a–e) and SAED pattern (f) of SO4/Fe–Al–TiO2....Figure 11.6 SEM micrographs of SO4/kaolin.Figure 11.7 FESEM micrographs of (a) RHC/K2O‐20%/Ni‐1%, (b) RHC/K2O‐20%/Ni‐5...
12 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 Process for transformation of animal sources as natural catalyst...Figure 12.2 Production pathways for various plants‐derived alkali catalysts....
13 Chapter 14Figure 14.1 Common examples of (a) metal clusters (secondary building units)...Figure 14.2 Tunable active sites present in metal–organic frameworks: (a) me...Scheme 14.1 Schematic representation of creation of missing linker defects i...Scheme 14.2 (a) General esterification of carboxylic acids and (b) transeste...Figure 14.3 (a) Structure of ZIF‐8 MOF, (b) secondary building unit (SBU)‐Zn...Scheme 14.3 Transesterification of tributyrin with methanol.Figure 14.4 Synthesis of functional DMOF‐1 catalysts through “click chemistr...Scheme 14.4 Schematic representation of mechanism for the esterification of ...Figure 14.5 (a) Secondary building units (SBU) corresponding to UiO‐66(Zr), ...Figure 14.6 (a) Representation of synergistic active centers within the stru...Figure 14.7 (a) Schematic representation of formation of NENU‐3a {Cu12(BTC)8
14 Chapter 15Figure 15.1 Steps in production of advanced biodiesel from waste cooking oil...Figure 15.2 Global share of feedstocks.Figure 15.3 Biodiesel production by countries.
15 Chapter 16Figure 16.1 Rotating reactor‐assisted biodiesel production system (a) spinni...Figure 16.2 Tubular flow reactor (a) packed bed reactor, (b) oscillatory flo...Figure 16.3 Continuous microwave‐assisted biodiesel production system (a), s...Figure 16.4 Schematic diagram of hybridized reactive distillation.Figure 16.5 Schematic diagram of separated membrane reactor.Figure 16.6 Schematic cross‐sectional view of the centrifuge contactor react...Figure 16.7 Integration of different intensification techniques for biodiese...
16 Chapter 17Figure 17.1 General scheme of flow processes for wet and dry washing.Figure 17.2 Scheme of membrane separation unit for biodiesel purification.
17 Chapter 18Scheme 18.1 Commercial synthesis of acrylic acid via propylene oxidation.Figure 18.1 Renewable energy sources and biomass valorization to fuels and c...Figure 18.2 Glycerol is a by‐product from biodiesel synthesis.Figure 18.3 Conversion of glycerol to acrylic acid via different routes.Figure 18.4 The reaction mechanism of glycerol dehydration over (a) Brønsted...Figure 18.5 Concept of sustainable biomass processing.Figure 18.6 Glycerol oxydehydration to acrylic acid in one‐bed catalytic sys...Figure 18.7 Reaction mechanisms for (a) dehydration of glycerol into acrolei...
18 Chapter 19Chart 19.1 Popularity of biodiesel (Google trends).Figure 19.1 Viscosity implied by intermolecular forces in vegetable oil.Figure 19.2 Representative process in the transesterification of vegetable/a...Figure 19.3 Catalysts developed for the transesterification.Figure 19.4 Generational evolution in biodiesel feedstock towards sustainabi...Figure 19.5 Pros and cons of first‐generation biodiesel.Figure 19.6 Single‐stage vs double‐stage transesterification of nonedible oi...
19 Chapter 20Figure 20.1 Overall reaction of transesterification process.Figure 20.2 Biodiesel separation using membrane process..Figure 20.3 Biodiesel production using microwave heating.Figure 20.4 Formation of ultrasonic sound and formation and growth of bubble...
Guide
4 Preface
6 An Overview of Biodiesel Production
9 Index
10 WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT