4 Chapter 3FIGURE 3.1 Millions of years ago, tulip poplars were found across much of wh...FIGURE 3.2 Some examples of trees from the major conifer families (beginning...FIGURE 3.3 The view from 30 m up: Tropical rain forests are famous for thei...FIGURE 3.4 The young fig in Kerala, India in the upper two panels is wrappe...FIGURE 3.5 Red alder trees form a symbiosis with Frankia bacteria, housed i...FIGURE 3.6 The 50 or so aspen stems visible in this picture are only half of...FIGURE 3.7 The history of vegetation at a site may be recorded in the form o...FIGURE 3.8 Ponderosa pine trees were absent from the Rocky Mountains during ...FIGURE 3.9 Hemlock was a major species of the forests of southern Ontario, ...FIGURE 3.10 The current animal community in North America bears slight resem...FIGURE 3.11 Change is the only consistent story of forest ecology for the l...FIGURE 3.12 Earth is warming, and this warming will be accompanied by chang...
5 Chapter 4FIGURE 4.1 The apparent color of leaves changes in the autumn as changing c...FIGURE 4.2 Rates of transpiration from leaves depends on the density and ope...FIGURE 4.3 Water flows “down” gradients of potential, from high potentials ...FIGURE 4.4 The structure of leaves in the canopy of a rain forest in Costa R...FIGURE 4.5 Eucalyptus plantations in Hawaii also show a clear pattern betwee...FIGURE 4.6 The photosynthetic capacity of needles (with full sunlight) in a ...FIGURE 4.7 The tropical location of this eucalyptus plantation in Brazil exp...FIGURE 4.8 This onyina (or kapok) tree in Ghana has large buttresses which d...FIGURE 4.9 Fine roots concentrate in the upper soil, including the O horizon...FIGURE 4.10 The tiny seeds of cottonwoods provide almost no resources to sup...FIGURE 4.11 Aaltonen (1919) concluded that light alone did not explain the g...FIGURE 4.12 Douglas‐fir seedlings planted in the understory of a Norway spru...FIGURE 4.13 Scots pine trees in Finland can withstand temperatures of −50 °...FIGURE 4.14 Two decades after a forest‐replacing fire, a forest in northern ...FIGURE 4.15 The survivorship curve (left) for a mountain palm forest in Pu...FIGURE 4.16 The combination of the addition of new trees and the death of e...FIGURE 4.17 Many (most?) broadleaved trees can form new tree stems from root...FIGURE 4.18 Most forest trees originate from seeds produced by trees in the ...FIGURE 4.19 Beech trees have masting years of high seed production at inter...FIGURE 4.20 The bark of aspen is white/gray on the surface, with a layer of...
6 Chapter 5FIGURE 5.1 Koa forests in Hawaii descended from seeds brought from Australia...FIGURE 5.2 Beaver‐cutting of aspen stems (top left) typically does not kill ...FIGURE 5.3 A fivefold increase in ungulate populations (Y axis is scaled to ...FIGURE 5.4 Domestic livestock are common in many forests, including reindeer...FIGURE 5.5 The age structure of aspen across the Kaibab Plateau supported th...FIGURE 5.6 Simple stories could be imagined as useful explanations for popul...FIGURE 5.7 Map of Isle Royale, where dynamics of populations of moose and wo...FIGURE 5.8 The dynamics of moose and wolf populations on Isle Royale followe...FIGURE 5.9 A simulation of forest vegetation in response to intensity of moo...FIGURE 5.10 Some animal populations fluctuate on a semi‐regular cycle, thoug...FIGURE 5.11 Populations of snowshoe hares increased with the addition of foo...FIGURE 5.12 The food web in the “lynx/hare” system in the Yukon includes str...FIGURE 5.13 Roe deer are medium‐size (20–30 kg) browsing herbivores, with de...FIGURE 5.14 Over a 30‐year period, the population of elk on the Uncompahgre ...FIGURE 5.15 Reducing a high population of red deer in the Cairngorm mountai...FIGURE 5.16 The hypothesis that elk benefit from thermal cover in winter was...FIGURE 5.17 Fencing can be used to test for the effect of animals in a singl...FIGURE 5.18 Two canyons in Zion National Park, Utah, US, look very different...
7 Chapter 6FIGURE 6.1 Individual trees can find sufficient support, water, and nutrie...FIGURE 6.2 These profiles come from sites just a few km apart in Brazil. Th...FIGURE 6.3 Forest growth differs by more than a factor of two across a 10...FIGURE 6.4 A common‐garden experiment in Toronto, Ontario, Canada found a l...FIGURE 6.5 A common‐garden experiment in Poland included plots with linden,...FIGURE 6.6 The diversity of life in soils is almost inconceivable, so here ...FIGURE 6.7 The water content of the atmosphere varies with latitude (high i...FIGURE 6.8 Precipitation falls mostly on canopies in forests, and high surfa...FIGURE 6.9 The growth of trees often increases going down slopes. The two bl...FIGURE 6.10 Streams flow with water down a valley, but water also moves thr...FIGURE 6.11 Evapotranspiration can be measured at varying scales in forest...FIGURE 6.12 The amount of water returned to the atmosphere by forests in A...FIGURE 6.13 Streamflow increased after clearcutting a watershed in the Cow...FIGURE 6.14 Streamflow increases when trees are removed, as a result of lo...FIGURE 6.15 Slash pine trees develop sparse crowns and grow poorly on this ...FIGURE 6.16 The addition of nitrogen from the atmosphere to forests and oth...FIGURE 6.17 The forms, transformations, and movement of N in forests are co...FIGURE 6.18 The log in the upper left decomposed over about a century, and ...FIGURE 6.19 The annual flow of streamwater increases across watersheds of ...
8 Chapter 7FIGURE 7.1 The biomass of old growth forests differs among forest types ar...FIGURE 7.2 During the summer, total photosynthesis is quite high for a 60‐y...FIGURE 7.3 The mass of a eucalyptus tree was estimated by cutting down the ...FIGURE 7.4 Classic forestry approaches determined the general trend of volum...FIGURE 7.5 The production of forests across a watershed in Idaho, USA (Figur...FIGURE 7.6 The production ecology of individual trees can be used to unders...FIGURE 7.7 The growth of forests increases (or plateaus) with increasing den...FIGURE 7.8 The growth of an unthinned forest of tulip poplar (on a site whe...FIGURE 7.9 A long‐term experimental plot near the coast of Oregon tracked th...FIGURE 7.10 Growth of a focal tree (circled in red in the left picture) may ...FIGURE 7.11 The size and distance of nearby N‐fixing falcataria trees infl...FIGURE 7.12 A mixed plantation of falcataria and eucalyptus grew 40% more a...FIGURE 7.13 An analysis of 5000 inventory plots in German forests showed no ...FIGURE 7.14 Experiments on mixed‐species forests compare the growth in mono...FIGURE 7.15 The effects of mixture changes over time, as shown in this expe...FIGURE 7.16 A common garden experiment in Poland included replicated plots o...FIGURE 7.17 Forests in Ontario, Canada were sampled for understory biomass i...FIGURE 7.18 The 50‐year changes in a forest in coastal Oregon (same forest a...FIGURE 7.19 The number of trees of various sizes did not change much in an ...FIGURE 7.20 Forests may accumulate decaying woody material for decades or ce...FIGURE 7.21 At the end of a century‐long rotation, a Norway spruce forest i...
9 Chapter 8FIGURE 8.1 The spatial dimensions of forests include the land area beneath t...FIGURE 8.2 The minimal size of a forest might be the domain of a single tre...FIGURE 8.3 The delineation of an operationally useful unit, a strand, is cle...FIGURE 8.4 A scale of 1 ha (0.01 km2, upper left) typically includes dozens...FIGURE 8.5 The number of