and seminaries before moving to Innsbruck in Austria where he studied theology and was ordained a priest in 1923. Returning to the USA he taught theology and geology, regularly travelling in Alaska. He was often criticised for his inaccurate geology, a similar reception was found when he started anthropological studies in Alaska. He was a renowned and popular lecturer.
Hutton, James (1726–1797).Born in Edinburgh, he was originally apprenticed to a lawyer, but moved to the continent and studied medicine there, graduating at Leyden. He never practised as a doctor, returning to Scotland to take up farming. This did not hold him and for 14 years he amassed a large sum by extracting ammonium chloride from soot. This financial independence allowed him to return to Edinburgh and devote himself to science.
Huxley, Thomas Henry (1825–1895).Huxley was born in Ealing, the son of a school master, nonetheless he only received two years of formal instruction, being mainly self‐taught. Having studied medicine at Charing Cross Hospital, he entered the Royal Navy Medical Service. After a four‐year voyage around Australia he returned to become a self‐employed science writer in 1850, and by 1854 was lecturing on natural history at the School of Mines. He worked extensivel in zoology and palaeontology. His employment at the school of mines made him sufficiently financially stable for him to marry his Australian girl friend from eight years previously. Of their seven children there was Sir Julian (biologist) Aldous (writer) and Sir Andrew (Nobel Laureate 1963).
Johnson, Samuel (1709–1784).Always referred to as Dr. Johnson, he was a lexicographer, writer and critic. Born in Lichfield, Staffordshire, he was a keen reader from an early age in his father’s bookshop. He was educated at Lichfield Grammar School and Pembroke College, Oxford. After a period as a teacher, he moved to London where he made a living as a writer. He married a widow 20 years his senior, who died in 1752, plunging Johnson into depression. In 1755 his famous dictionary was published and although a lasting success, Johnson was short of money. In 1760 he was granted £300 a year for life by George III which gave him financial security for the first time.
Kepler, Johannes (1571–1630).Kepler was the son of a mercenary. He studied theology at Tubingen, but was more interested in mathematics. It was mathematics that he taught at a protestant seminary in Graz. He was forced out of his position in 1600 on religious grounds. As a consequence, he joined Tycho Brahe and being unable to fit observations to the Copernican cosmology formulated his idea of elliptical orbits. He was also a keen astrologer.
Kingsley, Charles (1819–1875).Born in Holne, Devon, and brought up at Clevelly in the same county. His tertiary education was at King's College, London, and Magdalen College, Cambridge. As an ordained member of the church, he held many ecclesiastical positions, including Chaplin to Queen Victoria. He was also Professor of Modern History at Cambridge University. Two years before he died, he was made canon of Westminster Abbey. He was married and had three children.
Kircher, Athanasius (c. 1602–1680).He was born in Germany, the youngest of nine children, and attended the Jesuit college in nearby Fulda between 1614 and 1618, after which he joined the sect as a novitiate. He studied many subjects besides the standard curriculum, such as vulcanology and Hebrew. He was ordained a priest in 1628 and became Professor of ethics and mathematics at the University of Würzburg, where he also taught Hebrew. He was widely recognised as a polymath, publishing as he did, more than 40 significant works in many different fields.
Kovalevsky, Vladimir (1842–1883).The youngest child of two, Vladimir was born in Belarus. He was educated in languages from a young age and made money translating printed matter while still a student. After graduation he joined the Department of Heraldry, during which he travelled in Europe and eventually settled in London. He married Sofia Korvin‐Krukovskaya in 1868 and returned to Russia in 1878, the year that their daughter was born. Unable to gain an academic position and having made some bad business decisions, Kovalevsky committed suicide.
Kuhn, Thomas (1922–1996).Born in Cincinnati in the USA, he graduated with a bachelor’s degree in physics, followed by a masters and a PhD, all from Harvard College. After this he moved into history and philosophy off science, becoming professor of the History of Science at the University of California in 1961. Kuhn moved to Princeton University as professor of Philosophy and History of Science and then went to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology as Professor of Philosophy until his retirement. He was married twice and had three children with his first wife.
Lamark, Jean‐Baptiste (1744–1829).Lamarck was born in northern France, the 11th child of the family. Upon the death of his father, he joined the French army, at the time stationed in Germany. He received a field commission at the age of 17 with a reduced pension due to injury. He started studying medicine, but gave up tp pursue an interest in botany. In 1778 Lamarck married Marie Delaporte. There were several children, but Marie died in 1792. The following year he married Charlotte Reverdy, who was 30 years younger than him. Charlotte died in 1797. In 1798 Lamarck married Julie Mallet, who died in 1819. In old age Lamarck lost his sight and when he died, the family needed financial assistance for a common grave of five years. After that the grave was dug up and the body disposed of in a lime pit.
Lartet, Edouard Armand Isidore Hippolyte (1801–1871).Born in France, his father was a wealthy landowner. Before taking over the estates, Lartet studied law at Tolouse University. Being of independent means, Lartet spent most of his time in palaeontological investigations. He was made professor of palaeontology at the Jardin des Plantes in the same year he died.
Leakey, Louis Seymour Bazett (1903–1972).The son of East African (now Kenya) missionaries, he studied anthropology at St John's College, Cambridge, and wrote extensively on African anthropology. He married Mary with whom he worked on archaeological digs in Africa.
Leeuwenhoek, Antoinie van (1632–1723).Born in Delft, he was the first son of five children. He worked as a draper in Amsterdam until 1650 when he moved to Delft. He developd his own techniques for polishing single lenses of very short focal length, which magnified from 50× to 200×.
Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm (1646–1716).Born in Leipzig, Saxony, his father died when Wilhelm was six years old. In 1661, when he was 14 years old, he enrolled at the University of Leipzig. By 1664 he had been awarded a master’s degree in philosophy. After one‐year study he was awarded a bachelor’s degree in law in 1665. In 1666 he gained a doctorate in law (University of Altdorf) and a licence to practice. He was regarded as charming and humorous but due to various personal and diplomatic problems, at his death he was so out of favour with George I and the court that his funeral was poorly attended. His grave in Hanover was unmarked for 50 years after his death.
Leidy, Joseph (1823–1891).Born in Philadelphia, his father wanted him to become a sign painter, instead he studied medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, graduating in 1844. He went on to become professor of anatomy at University of Pennsylvania and Professor of natural history at Swarthmore College. He married Anna Harden and had one adopted child.
Le Mascrier, Jean‐Baptiste (1697–1760).A French clergyman, he was born in Caen, followed by a traditional theological education. In 1692 he met Benoit de Maillet in Egypt and edited his books.
Leucippus (fifth century BCEE).A native of Miletus, he was the originator of the atomistic cosmology which was developed by Democritus. It has become almost impossible to separate the ideas of Leucippus from Democritus.
Lhuyd (Lhwyd), Edward (1660–1709).Born in Shropshire, Lhuyd was the illegitimate son of a comfortably well off family from Wales. He attended and later taught at Oswestry Grammar School. He went to Jesus College, Oxford, in 1682, but did not graduate, joining the Ashmolean Museum as assistant to Robert Plot, later replacing Plot as Keeper. In 1701 he was awarded an honorary MA from Oxford University.
Linnaeus, Carl (1707–1778).Born in Råshult, Sweden, Carl was the son of a pastor. He studied medicine at Lund, but only briefly and then went on to Uppsala to study botany where he became lecturer in 1730. Having decided to earn a living as a physician, Linnaeus travelled to Holland to qualify in medicine in 1735, the year in which he published Systema Naturae, the foundation of modern biological nomenclature. He returned to Sweden in 1738 as a practising physician, becoming professor of medicine and botany at Uppsala University in 1741. In 1749 he introduced the binomial naming system still in use today.
Loew, Friedrich Hermann (1807–1879).Born in Saxony, he attended the convent school of Rossleben followed by the University of Halle‐Wittenberg, where he studied mathematics and natural history. He was appointed lecturer in mathematics and natural history, becoming expert in entomology. He moved to Berlin as a teacher in these subjects. He travelled widely in the near and far east. In 1834 he married the daughter of a notable preacher.
Lyell, Charles (1797–1875).Lyell was born in Kinnordy, Forfarshire, the son of a mycologist,
