20. Ruth Mazo Karras, Unmarriages: Women, Men, and Sexual Unions in the Middle Ages (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012), 4–5, 2.
21. Nearly thirty years ago, the philosopher Ian Hacking explained that the idea of the “normal,” much like the categories of “heterosexual” and homosexual,” originated in the nineteenth century. In The Taming of Chance, Hacking argued that by the late nineteenth century, the psychological sciences had helped create a new concept of the normal/abnormal, which supplanted the older binary of natural/unnatural. Hacking, The Taming of Chance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990). The scholar Laura Doan argues in her unpublished manuscript “Birds and Bees: An Unnatural History of Modern Sexuality,” however, that the older natural/unnatural system persisted long after “normality” emerged. Disability studies has further interrogated the power of ideas of the “normal” and critiqued the binary oppositions of ability/disability and its corollary of normality/freakery. See Rosemarie Garland-Thomson, Freakery: Cultural Spectacles of the Extraordinary Body (New York: NYU Press, 1996); Garland-Thomson, Extraordinary Bodies: Figuring Physical Disability in American Culture and Literature (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997); Lennard J. Davis, The End of Normal: Identity in a Biocultural Era (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2013).
22. Peter Cryle and Elizabeth Stephens, Normality: A Critical Genealogy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2017). See also Laura Doan, “Marie Stopes’s Wonderful Rhythm Charts: Normalizing the Natural,” Journal of the History of Ideas 78, no. 4 (2017): 595–620.
23. See Calvin Thomas, ed., Straight with a Twist: Queer Theory and the Subject of Heterosexuality (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2000).
24. From that issue, see especially Annamarie Jagose, “The Trouble with Antinormativity,” differences 26, no. 1 (2015): 26–47.
25. Lochrie, Heterosyncrasies, xiii.
26. Lauren Berlant and Michael Warner, “Sex in Public,” Critical Inquiry 24, no. 2 (1998): 548n2, 549.
27. Halperin, How to Do the History of Homosexuality, 107.
28. Marjorie B. Garber, Vice Versa: Bisexuality and the Eroticism of Everyday Life (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995), 66.
29. Judit Takacs, “The Double Life of Kertbeny,” in Past and Present of Radical Sexual Politics, ed. Gert Hekma (Amsterdam: UvA Massa Foundation, 2004), 30; Katz, Invention of Heterosexuality, 19–32.
30. Ross Brooks, “Transforming Sexuality: The Medical Sources of Karl Heinrich Ulrichs (1825–95) and the Origins of the Theory of Bisexuality,” Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 67, no. 2 (2010): 177–216; Garber, Vice Versa; Sigmund Freud, Dora: An Analysis of a Case of Hysteria, ed. Philip Rieff (New York: Collier Books, 1993), part 2; Freud, “Extract from Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality: 1. The Sexual Aberrations (1905),” in Bisexuality: A Critical Reader, ed. Merl Storr (London: Routledge, 1999), 20–27; Henry Havelock Ellis, “Extracts from Studies in the Psychology of Sex, Volume I: Sexual Inversion (1897) and from Studies in the Psychology of Sex, Volume II: Sexual Inversion (1915),” in Storr, Bisexuality, 15–19. For additional consideration of Freud’s theorization of bisexuality, see Birgit Lang and Katie Sutton, “The Queer Cases of Psychoanalysis: Rethinking the Scientific Study of Homosexuality, 1890s–1920s,” German History 34, no. 3 (2016): 419–44, esp. 423–25.
31. Lucy Bland and Laura Doan, eds., Sexology in Culture: Labelling Bodies and Desires (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998).
32. Julian Carter, The Heart of Whiteness: Normal Sexuality and Race in America, 1880–1940 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2007); Siobhan B. Somerville, Queering the Color Line: Race and the Invention of Homosexuality in American Culture (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2000). In the United States, at least, systematic processes of racial differentiation dated back to the antebellum period and the American school of ethnology. See George Fredrickson, The Black Image in the White Mind: The Debate on Afro-American Character and Destiny, 1817–1914 (New York: Harper and Row, 1971).
33. Angus McLaren, The Trials of Masculinity: Policing Sexual Boundaries, 1870–1930 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997), 1–2.
34. Katz, Invention of Heterosexuality, 14.
35. Hanne Blank, Straight: The Surprisingly Short History of Heterosexuality (Boston: Beacon, 2012).
36. Anne Fausto-Sterling, Sexing the Body: Gender Politics and the Construction of Sexuality (New York: Basic Books, 2000).
37. Lisa Duggan, Sapphic Slashers: Sex, Violence, and American Modernity (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2000); Duggan, “The Trials of Alice Mitchell: Sensationalism, Sexology, and the Lesbian Subject in Turn-of-the-Century America,” Signs 18, no. 4 (Summer 1993): 791–814; Jennifer Terry, An American Obsession: Science, Medicine, and Homosexuality in Modern Society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999); Vernon A. Rosario, ed., Science and Homosexualities (New York: Routledge, 1997); Heike Bauer, ed., Sexology and Translation: Cultural and Scientific Encounters across the Modern World, Sexuality Studies (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2015); Harry Oosterhuis, Stepchildren of Nature: Krafft-Ebing, Psychiatry, and the Making of Sexual Identity (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000).
38. Geertje A. Mak, “Conflicting Heterosexualities: Hermaphroditism and the Emergence of Surgery around 1900,” Journal of the History of Sexuality 24, no. 3 (September 2015): 402; Katz, Invention of Heterosexuality; Kevin White, The First Sexual Revolution: The Emergence of Male Heterosexuality in Modern America (New York: NYU Press, 1993); Roy Porter and Lesley A. Hall, The Facts of Life: The Creation of Sexual Knowledge in Britain, 1650–1950 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995); Daniel Boyarin, Unheroic Conduct: The Rise of Heterosexuality and the Invention of the Jewish Man (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).
39. Important interventions on this front include the following texts: Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the-Century New York (Philadelphia: Temple University