71 71 Choo, K.J., Simons, F.E., and Sheikh, A. (2013). Glucocorticoids for the treatment of anaphylaxis. Evidence‐Based Child Health. A Cochrane Review Journal. 1276–1294.
72 72 Dória, R.G., Valadão, C.A., Duque, J.C. et al. (2008). Comparative study of epidural xylazine or clonidine in horses. Vet. Anaesth. Anal. 35 (2): 166–172.
73 73 Skarda, R.T.and Muir, W.W. 3rd. (1996). Comparison of antinociceptive, cardiovascular, and respiratory effects, head ptosis, and position of pelvic limbs in mares after caudal epidural administration of xylazine and detomidine hydrochloride solution. Am. J. Vet. Res. 57 (9): 1338–1345.
74 74 Skarda, R.T. and Muir, W.W. 3rd. (1999). Effects of intravenously administered yohimbine on antinociceptive, cardiorespiratory, and postural changes induced by epidural administration of detomidine hydrochloride solution to healthy mares. Am. J. Vet. Res. 60 (10): 1262–1270.
75 75 Wittern, C., Hendrickson, D.A., Trumble, T. et al. (1998). Complications associated with administration of detomidine into the caudal epidural space in a horse. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 213 (4): 516–518.
76 76 Olbrich, V.H. and Mosing, M. (2003). A comparison of the analgesic effects of caudal epidural methadone and lidocaine in the horse. Vet. Anaesth. Anal. 30 (3): 156–164.
77 77 Gomez de Segura, I.A, Rossi, R.D., Santos, M. et al. (1998). Epidural injection of ketamine for perineal analgesia in the horse. Vet. Surg. 27 (4): 384–391.
78 78 Natalini, C.C. and Robinson, E.P. (2000). Evaluation of the analgesic effects of epidurally administered morphine, alfentanil, butorphanol, tramadol, and U50488H in horses. Am. J. Vet. Res. 61 (12): 1579–1586.
79 79 Hendrickson, D.A., Southwood, L.L., Lopez, M.J. et al. (1998). Cranial migration of different volumes of new‐methylene blue after caudal epidural injection in the horse. Equine Pract. 20: 12–14.
80 80 Valverde, A., Little, C.B., Dyson, D.H. et al. (1990). Use of epidural morphine to relieve pain in a horse. Can, Vet, J. 31 (3): 211.
81 81 Natalini, C.C. (2010). Spinal anesthetics and analgesics in the horse. Vet. Clin.: Equine Pract. 26 (3): 551–564.
82 82 Chladek, D.W. and Ruth, G.R. (1976). Isolation of Actinobacillus lignieresi from an epidural abscess in a horse with progressive paralysis. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 168 (1): 64–66.
83 83 Moudgal, V., Singal, B., Kauffman, C.A. et al. (2014). Spinal and paraspinal fungal infections associated with contaminated methylprednisolone injections. Open Forum Infect. Dis. 1 (1).
84 84 Knight, J.W., Cordingley, J.J., and Palazzo, M.G. (1997). Epidural abscess following epidural steroid and local anaesthetic injection. Anaesthesia. 52 (6): 576–578.
85 85 Yue, W.M. and Tan, S.B. (2003). Distant skip level discitis and vertebral osteomyelitis after caudal epidural injection: a case report of a rare complication of epidural injections. Spine. 28 (11): E209–211.
86 86 Simopoulos, T.T., Kraemer, J.J., Glazer, P. et al. (2008). Vertebral osteomyelitis: a potentially catastrophic outcome after lumbar epidural steroid injection. Pain Physic. 11 (5): 693–697.
87 87 Martin, C.A., Kerr, C.L., Pearce, S.G. et al. (2003). Outcome of epidural catheterization for delivery of analgesics in horses: 43 cases (1998–2001). J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 222 (10): 1394–1398.
88 88 Swalander, D.B., Crowe, Jr. D.T., Hittenmiller, D.H. et al. (2000). Complications associated with the use of indwelling epidural catheters in dogs: 81 cases (1996–1999). J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 216 (3): 368–370.
89 89 Richardson, D.W. (1986). Eikenella corrodens osteomyelitis of the axis in a foal. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 188 (3): 298–299.
90 90 Ballantyne, J.C., Loach, A.B., and Carr, D.B. (1988). Itching after epidural and spinal opiates. Pain. 33 (2): 149–160.
91 91 Szarvas, S., Harmon, D., and Murphy, D. (2003). Neuraxial opioid‐induced pruritus: a review. J. Clin. Anesth. 15 (3): 234–239.
92 92 Fan, P. (1995). Nonopioid mechanism of morphine modulation of the activation of 5‐hydroxy tryptamine type 3 receptors. Mol. Pharmacol. 47: 491–495.
93 93 Burford, J.H. and Corley, K.T. Morphine‐associated pruritus after single extradural administration in a horse. Vet. Anaesth. Analg. 33 (3): 193–198.
94 94 Kalchofner, K.S., Kummer, M., Price, J. et al. (2007). Pruritus in two horses following epidurally administered morphine. Equine Vet. Educ. 19 (11): 590–594.
95 95 Haitjema, H. and Gibson, K.T. (2001). Severe pruritus associated with epidural morphine and detomidine in a horse. Aust. Vet. J. 79 (4): 248–249.
96 96 Bauquier, S.H. (2012). Hypotension and pruritus induced by neuraxial anaesthesia in a cat. Aust. Vet. J. 90 (10): 402–403.
97 97 Evangelista, M.C, Steagall, P., Garofalo, N.A. et al. (2016). Morphine‐induced pruritus after epidural administration followed by treatment with naloxone in a cat. J. Feline Med. Surg. Open Rep. 2 (1): 2055116916634105.
98 98 Nicoll, J.M., Acharya, P.A., Ahlen, K. et al. (1987). Central nervous system complications after 6,000 retrobulbar blocks. Anesth, Analg. 66 (12): 1298–1302.
99 99 Morath, U., Luyet, C., Spadavecchia, C. et al. (2013). Ultrasound‐guided retrobulbar nerve block in horses: a cadaveric study. Vet. Anaesth. Analg. 40 (2): 205–211.
100 100 Oliver, J.A. and Bradbrook, C.A. (2013). Suspected brainstem anesthesia following retrobulbar block in a cat. Vet. Ophthal. 16 (3): 225–228.
101 101 Faccenda, K.A. and Finucane, B. (2001). Complications of regional anaesthesia. Drug Saf. 24 (6): 413–442.
102 102 Caldwell, F.J. and Easley, K.J. (2012). Selfinflicted lingual trauma secondary to inferior alveolar nerve block in 3 horses. Equine Vet. Educ. 24 (3): 119–123.
103 103 Tremaine, W.H. (2007). Local analgesic techniques for the equine head. Equine Vet. Educ. 19 (9): 495–503.
104 104 Henry, T., Pusterla, N., Guedes, A.G. et al. (2014). Evaluation and clinical use of an intraoral inferior alveolar nerve block in the horse. Equine Vet. J. 46 (6): 706–710.
105 105 Auroy, Y., Narchi, P., Messiah, A. et al. (1997). Serious complications related to regional anesthesia. Results of a prospective survey in France. J. Am. Soc. Anesth. 87 (3): 479–486.
106 106 Levine, D.G., Epstein, K.L., Ahern, B.J. et al. (2010). Efficacy of three tourniquet types for intravenous antimicrobial regional limb perfusion in standing horses. Vet. Surg. 39 (8): 1021–1024.
107 107 Crenshaw, A.G., Hargens, A.R., Gershuni, D.H. et al. (1988). Wide tourniquet cuffs more effective at lower inflation pressures. Acta Orthop. Scand. 59: 447–451.
108 108 van der Velde, J., Serfontein, L., and Iohom, G. (2013). Reducing the potential for tourniquet‐associated reperfusion injury. Europ. J. Emerg. Med. 20 (6): 391–396.
109 109 Solti, F., Vecsey, T., Kekesi, V. et al. (1989). The effect of atrial dilatation on the genesis of atrial arrhythmias. Cardio. Res. 23: 882–886.
110 110 Townsend, H.S., Goodman, S.B., Schurman, D.J. et al. (1996). Tourniquet release: systemic and metabolic effects. Acta Anaesth. Scand. 40: 1234–1237.
111 111 Klenerman, L., Biswas, M., Hulands, G.H. et al. (1980). Systemic and local effects of the application of a tourniquet. Bone Jnt. J. 62 (3): 385–388.
15 Complications of Sedative and Anesthesia Medications
Rachel C. Hector DVM, MS, DACVAA and Khursheed Mama DVM, DACVAA
Department of Clinical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado
Overview
This chapter will highlight key concerns and briefly address