66 66 Hammen, C. (2005). Stress and depression. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 1 (1): 293–319.
67 67 American Psychological Association and APA Working Group on Stress and Health Disparities (2017). Stress and Health Disparities: Contexts, Mechanisms, and Interventions Among Racial/Ethnic Minority and Low‐Socioeconomic Status Populations, 1–76. Washington: American Psychological Association.
68 68 Bartley, M., Wilkinson, R., and Marmot, M. (eds.) (2003). Social Determinants of Health: The Solid Facts, 2e. Denmark: World Health Organization.
69 69 McEwen, B.S. (2003). Mood disorders and allostatic load. Biological Psychiatry 54 (3): 200–207.
70 70 Breslau, J., Aguilar‐Gaxiola, S., Borges, G. et al. (2007). Risk for psychiatric disorder among immigrants and their US‐born descendants: evidence from the national comorbidity survey replication. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 195 (3): 189–195.
71 71 Sternthal, M.J., Slopen, N., and Williams, D.R. (2011). Racial disparities In health: how much does stress really matter? Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race 8 (1) 95–113.
72 72 Oglodek, E., Szota, A., Just, M. et al. (2014). The role of the neuroendocrine and immune systems in the pathogenesis of depression. Pharmacological Reports 66 (5): 776–781.
73 73 Lupien, S.J., McEwen, B.S., Gunnar, M.R. et al. (2009). Effects of stress throughout the lifespan on the brain, behaviour and cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10 (6): 434–445.
74 74 Anacker, C., O'Donnell, K.J., and Meaney, M.J. (2014). Early life adversity and the epigenetic programming of hypothalamic‐pituitary‐adrenal function. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience 16 (3): 321–333.
75 75 Juster, R.P., Marin, M.‐F., Sindi, S. et al. (2011). Allostatic load associations to acute, 3‐year and 6‐year prospective depressive symptoms in healthy older adults. Physiology & Behavior 104 (2): 360–364.
76 76 Kobrosly, R.W., Seplaki, C.L., Cory‐Slechta, D.A. et al. (2013). Multisystem physiological dysfunction is associated with depressive symptoms in a population‐based sample of older adults. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 28 (7): 718–727.
77 77 Kobrosly, R.W., van Wijngaarden, E., Seplaki, C.L. et al. (2014). Depressive symptoms are associated with allostatic load among community‐dwelling older adults. Physiology & Behavior 123: 223–230.
78 78 Scheuer, S., Wiggert, N., Brückl, T.M. et al. (2018). Childhood abuse and depression in adulthood: the mediating role of allostatic load. Psychoneuroendocrinology 94: 134–142.
79 79 Brody, D.J., L.A. Pratt, and J.P. Hughes, Prevalence of Depression Among Adults Aged 20 and Over: United States, 2013–2016. NCHS Data Brief, 2018(303): p. 1–8.
80 80 Kessler, R.C., Birnbaum, H., Demler, O. et al. (2005). The prevalence and correlates of nonaffective psychosis in the national comorbidity survey replication (NCS‐R). Biological Psychiatry 58 (8): 668–676.
81 81 Riolo, S.A., Nguyen, T.A., Greden, J.F. et al. (2005). Prevalence of depression by race/ethnicity: findings from the national health and nutrition examination survey III. American Journal of Public Health 95 (6): 998–1000.
82 82 Walsemann, K.M., Gee, G.C., and Geronimus, A.T. (2009). Ethnic differences in trajectories of depressive symptoms: disadvantage in family background, high school experiences, and adult characteristics. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 50 (1): 82–98.
83 83 Lewis‐Fernandez, R., Das, A.K., Alfonso, C. et al. (2005). Depression in US Hispanics: diagnostic and management considerations in family practice. The Journal of the American Board of Family Practice 18 (4): 282–296.
84 84 Balsa, A.I., McGuire, T.G., and Meredith, L.S. (2005). Testing for statistical discrimination in health care. Health Services Research 40 (1): 227–252.
85 85 Borowsky, S.J., Rubenstein, L.V., Meredith, L.S. et al. (2000). Who is at risk of nondetection of mental health problems in primary care? Journal of General Internal Medicine 15 (6): 381–388.
86 86 Das, A.K., Olfson, M., McCurtis, H.L. et al. (2006). Depression in African Americans: breaking barriers to detection and treatment. The Journal of Family Practice 55 (1): 30–39.
87 87 Breslau, J., Aguilar‐Gaxiola, S., Kendler, K.S. et al. (2006). Specifying race‐ethnic differences in risk for psychiatric disorder in a USA national sample. Psychological Medicine 36 (1): 57–68.
88 88 Budhwani, H., Hearld, K.R., and Chavez‐Yenter, D. (2015). Depression in racial and ethnic minorities: the impact of nativity and discrimination. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities 2 (1): 34–42.
89 89 Doamekpor, L.A. and Dinwiddie, G.Y. (2015). Allostatic load in foreign‐born and US‐born blacks: evidence from the 2001–2010 national health and nutrition examination survey. American Journal of Public Health 105 (3): 591–597.
90 90 Peek, M.K., Cutchin, M.P., Salinas, J.J. et al. (2010). Allostatic load among non‐Hispanic whites, non‐Hispanic blacks, and people of Mexican origin: effects of ethnicity, nativity, and acculturation. American Journal of Public Health 100 (5): 940–946.
91 91 Kaestner, R., Pearson, J.A., Keene, D. et al. (2009). Stress, allostatic load and health of Mexican immigrants. Social Science Quarterly 90 (5): 1089–1111.
92 92 Rodriquez, E.J., Livaudais‐Toman, J., Gregorich, S.E. et al. (2018). Relationships between allostatic load, unhealthy behaviors, and depressive disorder in US adults, 2005–2012 NHANES. Preventive Medicine 110: 9–15.
93 93 Bey, G.S., Jesdale, B.M., Ulbricht, C.M. et al. (2018). Allostatic load biomarker associations with depressive symptoms vary among US black and white women and men. Healthcare (Basel) 6 (3): 105.
94 94 Berger, M., Taylor, S., Harriss, L. et al. (2019). Hair cortisol, allostatic load, and depressive symptoms in Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. Stress: 1–9.
95 95 Beckie, T.M. (2012). A systematic review of allostatic load, health, and health disparities. Biological Research for Nursing 14 (4): 311–346.
Note
1 1 The main difference between MDD and MDE is that the latter includes episodes of depression that are part of a bipolar disorder, while MDD does not include bipolar depression. However, because most of lifetime MDE is MDD and different epidemiological surveys may focus on either one, we use whichever term is used in the study cited.
3 Racial/Ethnic, Socioeconomic, and Other Social Determinants
Tiffany L. Gary‐Webb1, 2, Sara E. Baumann1, Erik J. Rodriquez3, Lydia A. Isaac4, and Thomas A. LaVeist5
1 Department of Behavioral and Community Health Sciences, University of Pittsburgh Graduate School of Public Health, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
2 Department of Epidemiology, University of Pittsburgh Graduate School of Public Health, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
3 Division of Intramural Research; National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
4 The George Washington University, Milken Institute School of Public Health, Department of Health Policy and Management, Washington, DC, USA
5 Tulane University School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, New Orleans, LA, USA
3.1 Introduction
Race and ethnicity are among the most frequently used concepts in research conducted by public health, nursing, and medical scientists. It is well known that most