The book’s second major argument utilizes a cultural studies approach to highlight the massive demographic and generational shifts within the Cuban diaspora—Miami specifically. South Florida is home to the largest population of Cubans living in the United States. Scholars like Ricardo Ortíz have been right to point out the problematic dominance of Miami in the study of Cuban America.13 Most scholarship has focused on the exile generation that arrived between 1959 and 1973 and settled there.14 But Cuban Miami has changed a great deal and cultural studies scholarship has been slow to catch up. More Cubans arrived in the United States between 2000 and 2010 than in any past decade.15 Together, the US-born and arrivals since the 1990s now represent the majority of the diaspora. But while these cohorts differ from the older exile generation in many ways, there has been little scholarship on how these shifts manifest themselves in quotidian life and cultural production. Diversión aims to fill that void.
To make these arguments, I begin in the 1970s and quickly move to the twenty-first century with close readings of a popular culture archive that includes standup comedy, morning talk radio shows, festivals, television, and social media content. Starting in the 1970s with the exile community allows me to push back against the characterization of this segment of the diaspora as mostly melancholic while detailing the established Cuban Miami that later generations will contend with in the twenty-first century. Though the primary sources that I examine have received little attention from scholars, their popularity and status as cultural productions for and by Cuban audiences shed light on how succeeding generations have negotiated their relationships to the United States, each other, and a sense of cubanía—a Cuban cultural identity.16 Despite being a word that suggests a kind of cultural essence, cubanía has functioned as a “vague concept, malleable and adaptable.”17 Popular culture allows me to track how cubanía has been formulated in the diaspora in various ways at different historical junctures. Such an approach reveals alternative genealogies of the diaspora and its internal diversity through analysis of artists and popular culture that travel in and between the United States and Cuba. This transnational framework imagines cubanía “as a structure of feeling that supercedes national boundaries and pedagogies” and disrupts the ossified Cold War logic of two Cubas separated by political ideologies and government policies.18 This logic, long untenable, has been weakened further by the December 17, 2014, announcement regarding the reestablishment of diplomatic relations between the United States and Cuba. In this study, I explain how ludic popular culture has been a means for, and a reflection of, changes that have profoundly affected life on and off the island in the last twenty-five years.
Diversión Defined?
In centering this project on what I am calling diversión, I am participating in a long tradition of examining the ludic in Cuban culture by island-based intellectuals.19 This scholarly conversation has often focused on a term that has accrued over one hundred years of scholarship in Cuba, choteo.20 Choteo can be described as a form of irreverent humor and mockery common among the masses, articulated through the idiomatic specificity of Cuban popular culture, and highly suspicious of authority in all forms. The most quoted scholar on choteo, Cuban cultural critic Jorge Mañach, describes it as “something that all Cubans have” and a “typically Cuban form of relation” in his 1928 essay “Indagación del choteo.”21 Since he weighed in on the subject, many critics have invoked the term to describe Cuban cultural production and the “character” of the Cuban people.
Such essentializing language raises red flags. For one, the attitudes and practices described above in relation to choteo are not exclusive to Cuban culture. In fact, critics have explored the similarities between choteo and other comic forms like Puerto Rican guachafita and Mexican relajo.22 Others have suggested that choteo can be found throughout the Caribbean.23 So what makes Cuban choteo so Cuban? Why has it been claimed so strongly? In his study of humor in Puerto Rican literature on and off the island, Israel Reyes explains: “It is true that nations often claim particular species of the comic as part of their national character, and Spanish American and Hispanic Caribbean nations are no exceptions.”24 In the early years of the republic, Cuban academics consistently claimed, cited, and studied choteo as part of a larger intellectual project and debate geared toward defining what it meant to be “Cuban” in the newly independent nation.25 Today, choteo continues to be cited as a means to describe the Cuban national character. Juan Antonio García Borrero, writing in 2004, sums up this sentiment succinctly: “Está bien claro que Cuba sin choteo no sería Cuba” (It is very clear that Cuba without choteo wouldn’t be Cuba).26
Academic studies by island-based intellectuals have taken cues for studying choteo and Cuban humor more broadly from quotidian life and cultural production. The spirit of choteo was a central element of teatro bufo—a form of Cuban comic vernacular theater that first appeared in the mid-nineteenth century featuring characters in blackface.27 An irreverent tradition of political cartooning extending back to the mid-nineteenth century has long utilized choteo to skewer the powerful.28 It also appears in the work of artists like filmmaker Tomás Gutiérrez Alea and writers Mirta Yáñez, Virgilio Piñera, and Guillermo Cabrera Infante.29 The Cuban love affair with the ludic also registered on television where, as Yeidy Rivero points out, the first program was a comedy.30 But while artists and scholars have mobilized choteo and the intellectual history behind it in the service of their own projects, the word itself is rarely used in quotidian life.31 Instead, jodedera, dar cuero, and relajo often function as synonyms for choteo to varying degrees in everyday speech. Defining the differences between comic forms can be tricky and translation increases the difficulty.32 What these terms all do is suggest a kind of levity, of not taking people or things seriously, even if they merit just that.
Is it possible to create a typology of ludic terms in Cuban popular culture complete with definitions? Perhaps, but such a project will not be the focus of this book. I am not interested in distinguishing how choteo might be similar to or different from say, relajo. Instead, I choose the word diversión as a means to index a host of terms like choteo, relajo, jodedera, and burla, which populate Cuban scholarly and vernacular expression. At times, I will use certain terms, with qualification, when it is particularly apt in the context of the material I am discussing. Choteo, especially, carries a significant amount of weight because of the long intellectual history of the term and its anti-authoritarian bent. But the general attractiveness of diversión as this project’s organizing logic is its imprecision. Its broadness allows me to stay away from what I consider the less interesting conversation around classification. The discursive latitude of diversión allows me to place a variety of ludic cultural forms into conversation to illuminate the ways in which levity and play broadly conceived have shaped the social in dramatic ways.
I deploy diversión on two complementary levels. On the first, I use the term to describe ludic popular culture texts or moments as “archive[s] of feelings” charged with “feelings and emotions that are encoded not only in the content of the texts themselves but in the practices that surround their production and reception.”33 Diversión is the morning radio show you listen to on your morning drive that helps to set the tone for your day. It is the funny meme you circulate among your friends on social media that only they would understand. Diversión is the ridiculous “Cuban” nickname your aunt has given to one of your friends. It is the standup comedy show you attend on the weekend where gestures and jokes intersect to produce comic pleasure. It is born out of the cultural clashes that occur as Cuban Spanish and English meet in Hialeah to produce mistranslations or when you try to communicate the meaning of idiomatic phrases like “le zumba el mango” in English.34 As these examples suggest, a key component of my analysis will be a focus on language.